Religion and Socio-demographic reproduction crisis: Sikh marriage - PDF document

Religion and Socio-demographic reproduction crisis: Sikh marriage squeeze in India and Diaspora Since 1980’s, the widespread prac tice of selective abortions has disturbed the demographic structure (120 boys per 100 girls, age 0-4 years, in 2011) of Sikh community in India. Consequently, the acute shortage of females in marital and reproductive ages is affecting the traditional marriage market and hindering the socio-demographic reproduction of the community in India and Sikh diaspora. Moreover, the spread of education and consistently better performance of women in higher education as compared to men (who was expelled to Western countries by unemployment), have created additional difficulties for match making. In this paper, our main objective is to explore the effects of changing demography and women ’s education on the socio-demographic reproduction of the Sikh community in India and abroad. By using 2011 census data on Religious communities in India and last three NHF surveys 1992, 1998 and 2005, we have estimated the number of missing girls, and the intensity and timing of expected marriage squeeze in the Sikh community. To explore its effect on peripheral Sikh diaspora; we have conducted 64 in-depth interviews of Sikh immigrants in Spain and Italy, who, owing to their low perceived social capital, were in the most disadvantageous position in the global diaspora hierarchy. Key words: Sikh religion, marriage market, missing girls, diaspora, social reproduction. Introduction Recently, anthropologist Thomas Hylland Eriksen (2016), described identity crisis as a result of "overheating" of the social reproduction system caused by globalization, acceleration of immigrant flows and weakening of the state in developed countries. His analysis was mainly aimed to explain the increasing difficulties in the immigrant’s settlement and integration into the Western societies, which, owing to their prolonged low fertility and below-replacement growth rate has become a "complex demographic reproduction system based on immigration". However, if we see the condition of immigrant sending communities, like Sikhs in India, this approach can also be applied

to them, which now can be called a "complex demographic reproduction system based on emigration", where mass emigration of young males and acute shortage of females is overheating the community’s socio -demographic reproduction process. In this case, the identity which is entirely based on religion (Sikhism) has been shaken, if not put into real crisis, by the changes triggered by mass emigration under globalization and the shortage of females because of the sex selection at birth. Sex imbalance in favour of males is not a new phenomenon in the Indian Sikh community. Historically, it was characterised with the high sex ratio at younger ages, mainly due to the female infanticide and high female mortality caused by the lack of basic necessities and medical care during the early childhood period (Das Gupta, 1987). Since 1980s owing to the spread of pre-natal sex determination techniques (Amniocentesis and Ultrasound tests) in India, the practice of female infanticide transformed into sex selected abortions. Despite of its illegality, the states with considerable Sikh population in India i.e. Punjab and Haryana had the highest prevalence of sex selected abortions during the last decade (Kulkarni, 2007). The normal sex ratio at birth (SRB) in the human population is around 105 males for 100 females and it gets equal due to the excess male mortality afterwards. Among the Sikhs, the sex ratio at 0 to 4 year age group in 2011 was 120 males to 100 females, which was much higher than the standard and the national average of 109. This high imbalance results in a significant number of ‘missing girls’ in the Sikh community, who were the victims of sex selected abortion. The skewed sex ratio in previous cohorts always results in a marriage squeeze (Akers, 1967). Similarly, the shortage of females in the Sikh marriage market, which was traditionally characterized by the universality of marriage, caste endogamy, clan exogamy, and socioeconomic and educational homogamy (Ballard, 1990), is pushing

the community towards a marriage squeeze in the near future in their homeland and in diaspora. In the peripheral countries of the Sikh diaspora, like Italy and Spain, where estimated one-third of the total Indian immigrants in 2016 were young unmarried males, amidst these socio-demographic changes, the situation in marriage market is changing radically (Bonfanti, 2014). Owing to the low perceived social capital of these countries in the hierarchy of diaspora countries, these young males will be at the most disfavourable position in the Sikh marriage market. Among the Sikhs, “marriage” is considered as the founding pillar for the socio - cultural and demographic reproduction of the community. The future marriage-squeeze can pose a threat to this continuous process. Along with demographic changes, the widening gender gap in educational attainment is expected to increase the squeeze. According to the 2011 census of India, in the age group of 20-35 years in Punjab, the share of females with university degrees was 8% higher than the males. As in India mostly males want to marry with the females less educated than themselves and female wanting to marry with more educated males, now a new problem is emerging for the well-educated females and low educated males to find suitable matches in the community. Generally, the Sikhs are not advised to marry with Non-Sikhs 1 and most of the marriages are arranged-marriages (following caste and clan rules), the lack of suitable matches are putting additional stress on the traditional marriage market. In this paper, our starting hypothesis is ‘ owing to the shortage of females and widening gender educational gap, the Sikh community is heading towards a big “ marriage squeeze ” , which will adversely affect their traditional marriage market and push the community towards a socio-demographic reproduction and identity 1 http://realSikhism.com/index.php?subaction=showfull&id=1253136185&ucat=7

preservation crisis in India and abroad ’ . Secondly, ‘ the peripheral Sikh diaspora, which is composed of low profile young unmarried males (who largely depend upon the homeland marriage market for marriages), will suffer most from the shortage of expected brides in the Indian Sikh community ’ . To defend these hypotheses, we are going to make an assessment of the current demographic situation of Sikh community in India and the impact of selective abortions on it; secondly, to analyse the impact of “missing brides” and widening gender education gap on the traditional marriage m arket; and finally, the qualitative analysis of the discourse on marriage squeeze, gender relations, religion and socio-demographic reproduction of the community in the peripheral countries of Sikh diaspora i.e. Spain and Italy. Data Sources and Methodology In this paper, we are using data from 2011 census of India. In addition to other variables, this census also provides data on the size and basic characteristics of major religious groups at the national and state level. As the information in Census is limited, hence to explore other socio-demographic characteristics, we are using the data from three rounds of the National Family and Health Survey 1992-93, 1998-99 and 2005-06. As our prime objective is to explore the impact of socio-demographic changes, on the marriage market and socio-demographic reproduction of the Sikh community at their homeland and in the diaspora, to focus on the periphery of Sikh diaspora, we have conducted 64 in-depth interviews of Sikh immigrants in Spain and Italy. The selection of Italy and Spain was driven by the fact that in 2016, almost two third of the total Indian immigrants in these countries were Sikhs and their number was increasing rapidly with continuous inflows. Hence, it provides us an opportunity to observe how the young immigrants in the peripheral diaspora countries deal with this emerging marriage squeeze and socio-demographic reproduction crisis in their homeland.