Quantitative and Qualitative Data Analyses and Presentation Prof Lester M. Davids (lesterdavids@gmail.com)
There are two important days in one’s LIFE … …the DAY that you are BORN, and the DAY you find out WHY! CHANGE will not come if we wait for some other person or some other time. We are the ones we’ve been waiting for. WE are the change that we seek. Barack Obama
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
What is your question? What is novel in your research ? What is your hypothesis ?
What is your question ? (Statement of Purpose) What is novel in your research ? (Why am I doing this?) What is your hypothesis ? (What am I hoping to find?)
What is Research Design and Why is it Important ? • Helps to organize your thoughts. • Sets the boundaries of your study. • Maximizes the reliability of your findings • Avoids misleading or incomplete conclusions . • Will affect the quality and reliability of your final results and the overall value of your study
Problems to Avoid when Designing a Research Study Lack of Specificity -- needs to describe the process of investigation in clear and concise terms. Poorly Defined Research Problem -- formulate a well thought out problem statement OR hypothesis to test [identifying the research problem always precedes choice of design]. Lack of Theoretical Framework -- i.e. the conceptual foundation of your study. Your research design should include an explicit set of logically derived hypotheses, basic postulates, or assumptions that can be tested in relation to the research problem. Techniques or Instruments -- be clear in describing the techniques [e.g., semi- structured interviews] or instruments [e.g., questionnaire] used to gather data. Your research design should note how the technique or instrument will provide reasonably reliable data to answer the questions associated with the research problem. Significance -- the research design must include a clear answer to the "So What?" question. Why is your study important and how does it contribute to the larger body of literature ? Relationship between Past Research and Your Study -- Your literature review should include an explicit statement linking the results of prior research to your research you are about to undertake.
Proximity/Provincialism/Internationalisation -- this refers to designing a narrowly applied scope, geographical area, sampling, or method of analysis that restricts your ability to create meaningful outcomes; results may not be relevant in other settings. Objectives, Hypotheses, or Questions -- your research design should include one or more questions or hypotheses that you are attempting to answer about the research problem underpinning your study. They should be clearly articulated and closely tied to the overall aims of your paper. Statistical Treatment -- in quantitative studies, you must give a complete description of how you will organize the raw data for analysis. Statistically, this involves describing the data through the measures of central tendencies like mean, median, and mode that help lead to meaningful interpretations of key trends or patterns found within the data. Vocabulary -- research often contains jargon and specialized language that the reader is presumably familiar with. However, avoid overuse of technical or pseudo-technical terminology . Limitations of Study -- all studies have limitations, explain them . It is important to include a statement concerning what impact these limitations may have on the validity of your results and what you recommend to improve future studies
WHAT ARE STATISTICS?
Definition : Collecting, analysing and interpreting data Descriptive Statistics – describe Inferential Statistics – used to the sample or summarise vs make inferences or generalizations information about the sample (N) about the broader population Eg. Qualitative – t-test, ANOVA, Eg. Quantitative - Means, median, correlations mode etc. Parametric – any numerical Non - Parametric – any non- vs quantity that characterises a numerical quantity that arises population within a population
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Nature of Qualitative Research (Bryman, 2008) 1. General Research Questions “must explore a qualitative argument in a qualitative way. The question has to be grounded in a qualitative argument.” ( Crescentini 2009, p.432) 2. Collection of Information - selection of relevant cases - definition of the kind of instruments - collecting information “Data do not exist in nature, rather it emerges from the interaction of researchers with the field.” (Crescentini 2009, p.434) 3. Transformation in data - converting information into data 4. Interpretation of data - BE EXPLICIT! 5. Conceptual and Theoretical Framework - specification of research questions - collection of further data/information 6. Writing up finding/conclusions
Qualitative Research Study Design Naturalistic Emergent Purposeful Real-world situations Researcher avoids rigid Case studies; information Non-manipulative; Non- designs so as to respond rich and illuminative controlling to opportunities to pursue new discoveries Data Collection Observations yield in depth understanding; interviews; Data personal perspectives Researcher’s personal experience ; researcher has Personal experience and engagement direct contact with people Researcher seeks information without judgement Empathic neutrality (neutrality); show openness, sensitivity, respect Attention to process, focus on individual, organisation, Dynamic systems community or entire culture
Analysis Each case is special and unique; cross-case Unique case orientation analysis follows from and depends upon the quality of individual case studies Inductive analysis Emersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important patterns, themes Guided by analytical principles rather than rules Holistic perspective Complex system is more than the sum of its parts; Focus is on complex interdependencies and system dynamics Context sensitive Places findings in a social, historical and temporal context Careful comparative case analyses
Methods - Comparability of Data across sources Variance questions Questions that deal with differences between phenomena and the explanation for these differences This variable depends on other factors that are Dependent Variable measured. It is the presumed effect. Independent Variable This variable that is stable and unaffected by other variables. It is the presumed cause. Sentence : “The [ independent variable] causes a change in [dependent variable] and it is not possible that [dependent variable] could cause a change in [independent variable]. Sentence : “[ Global Warming] causes a change in [Arctic temps] and it is not possible that [Arctic temperatures] could cause a change in [global warming]. CAUSE and EFFECT
V.R.R. Validity “ Qualitative researchers must attempt to rule out most threats to validity after the research has begun by relying on evidence collected during the research process itself in order to effectively argue that any alternative explanations for a phenomenon are implausible.” (USC Edu, p. 5) “ the characteristic of being founded on truth, accuracy, fact or law. The degree of which a test or measurement accurately measures or reflects what it purports to measure” ( Vandenbos, 2007, p.975) “the extent to which an account accurately represents the social phenomena to which it refers” ( Hammersley 1990, p. 57) Usefulness of the study… Interpretations are related to the research question…
Rigour “locating situatedness, trustworthiness and authenticity ” (Tobin and Begley, 2004, p390) “ In depth-ness ” explanation of the study methodology… Eg . We used participant observations… Reliability Reproducibility of results. Did the researcher follow all the steps of the process leading to a clear understanding of the study ? Is an interview the same if you did it in person, via telephone or via a computer ?
SUMMARY Qualitative (Categorical) Variables Frequency table Bar Charts Pie Charts – numbers and % of cases in each group Mode
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon. Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing [ an independent variable ] and another [ a dependent or outcome variable ] within a population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once] or experimental [subjects measured before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.
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