19/04/2018 Outline 1. What are philosophical assumptions and Philosophical Paradigms in why should we give them attention? Social Research 2. Praxiological assumptions 3. Ontological assumptions 4. Epistemological assumptions Martyn Hammersley 5. Four paradigms and the philosophical The Open University assumptions they involve. UK 6. The issue of assessing research. 7. Navigating the field: Fundamentalism versus Pragmatism. University of Ghent, November 2015 A diversity of approaches: examples Why do we need philosophy? Social theory (for example Beck, Castells, 1. There are philosophical assumptions built Giddens, Žižek, et al) into: Experimental research, for example in social a. the purposes of our research; psychology or involving randomised b. the questions we address, and controlled trials of social policies. c. the methods we employ. Mixed methods Some of these assumptions may lead us astray . Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis 2. In writing up our research we need to locate it Ethnomethodological workplace studies in relation to the range of conflicting Foucauldian discourse analysis approaches that are currently to be found in Discursive psychology the field of social research in which we work. Ethnography, critical, interpretive, feminist…etc Praxiological differences Types of philosophical Is the goal: assumption 1. Solely to produce factual knowledge. 2. Also to produce evaluations and/or practical • Praxiological : what is the purpose and recommendations – for example by intended product of the research? documenting ‘what’s wrong’ or ‘what works’. • Ontological : what is the nature of social 3. To defend an institution or practice, or to phenomena, or of the particular types of bring about change of some kind, to ‘give social phenomena being researched? voice’ to some marginalised group, or • Epistemological : how can social otherwise to serve a form of practice, phenomena, of various kinds, be whether political, governmental, understood? organisational or occupational. 1
19/04/2018 Can research justify evaluations Goals and motives and prescriptions? It is important to distinguish between the operational goal of a research project, what This has long been a matter of dispute it is designed to achieve, and the motives amongst social scientists. Two sides: for doing research or for investigating a Those who insist that social research, like any particular topic. science, only has authoritative expertise in Most researchers hope that their work will producing factual knowledge. improve the world in some sense, but this is Those who argue that all knowledge claims different from designing the research so as are value-loaded, and that the researcher to try to bring about some practical outcome has a responsibility to make explicit (rather than aiming solely at producing evaluations and prescriptions. knowledge). Conflicting ontological assumptions Questions • All phenomena are governed by causal laws. OR Which of these praxiological positions are • Social actions are produced by people’s you adopting in your own research? perceptions, interpretations, intentions Why have you adopted this position rather and plans, in ways different from than one of the other two? physical causation. OR What are the implications of adopting this • Phenomena are generated by position for your work? constitutive practices, for example by discursive or rhetorical strategies of various kinds. Epistemological assumptions Must we rely upon: Questions • Interventions in situations and observation of the effects (experiments, action research) • Observational data, keeping inferences from What ontological and epistemological these to a minimum (behaviourist psychology, assumptions are you relying upon in conversation analysis); your research? • Standardised procedures of elicitation, and statistical generalisation (survey research); Are any of these problematic or • Comparative analysis of cases (AI, QCA); contentious? • Empathic understanding and/or cultural interpretation (much qualitative research). 2
19/04/2018 An Example: Investigating the Riotous Behaviour riots in London, August 2011 Between the 6th and 10th of August 2011: At least 4000 riot-related crimes recorded across London, 5 fatalities, 16 injured, More than £250 million cost to the tax payer. Three Examples Researching a riot A study concerned with building a mathematical model of participation in riots, designed to What research questions? show relationships between rioting, place of residence, and deprivation. What sorts of data? A study of media reports of the riots, identifying How could these be analysed in order to the discourses by means of which these answer the research questions? reports are constructed, how they portray rioters, the causes of riots, the police, the These issues are practical in character, politicians, etc in particular ways. but they also involve more philosophical A study involving interviews with rioters, assumptions that may need to be given concerned with documenting what they did attention. and why. Data for mathematical modelling Recorded crime: all offences in London in the period 6-11th August 2011: place and time of offence, residence and age of offender. Geographical data from the Census providing the residential populations of each part of London, plus Government statistics for levels of social deprivation in these, relating to employment, health, education, housing etc. Government data concerning London's retail centres, in particular measurements of total area of retail floor space in each centre. (Davies et al 2013) 3
19/04/2018 Discourse analysis of media reports ‘A predominant “underclass” discourse portrays the 2011 riots as the outcome of welfare dependency, irresponsibility and moral deficiencies of “the poor”. This discourse is shown to be a powerful organising myth which serves particular ideological functions. In positioning the poor as “revolting subjects” who are deserving of their disadvantage, public consent is secured for vindictive judicial and economic punishments: neoliberal welfare reform and penal workfare regimes’ (Allen et al 2013:2.4, discussing Tyler 2013) Data for the Discourse Analysis An interview study commissioned Study by the UK Government ‘“Shop a Moron” was the headline on the ‘The core question we sought to answer was front page of The Sun on 10 August, […]: “Why did young people get involved in 2011, as it launched a campaign the riots?” To address this, the report encouraging readers to 'Name and describes: Shame a Rioter'. Its front-page invited - what occurred in five affected areas and readers to examine the faces and two areas unaffected by rioting? bodies (as captured on CCTV) of those pictured for evidence of inherent signs - who was involved in the riots? of physical, mental and moral defects.’ - why and how young people got involved’? (Tyler 2013:7.1) (Morrell et al 2011:4) Methods Question Interviews with young people who were involved in the riots to discover their motives, as well as with those who chose not to get involved. On what praxiological, ontological, and Interviews with other community members – epistemological assumptions did each of residents, parents, business owners – to these studies rely? capture their views about what led to the riots and why young people became involved. To bring these different perspectives together in a summary of the key factors triggering and underpinning involvement in the riots, supported by evidence. (Morrell et al 2011) 4
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