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LABORATORY OF APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS Workshop on EU Policies to Workshop on EU Policies to Improve the Contribution of Improve the Contribution of Leonidas Ntziachristos Zissis Samaras Urban Busses and other Urban Busses and other Captive Fleets to Air Quality Captive Fleets to Air Quality ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY THESSALONIKI Brussels, 2005- -01 01- -14 14 Brussels, 2005 SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY OF APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS Captive Fleets Today Captive Fleets Today ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY THESSALONIKI SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Captive Fleets Today Contribution of Taxis – 1(2) � Taxis � difficult to provide a Europe-wide overview � Specific cases examined � London taxis (congestion charging applicable) � 23% of vehicles in the city centre � 40% of total traffic in central hub � 24% of total PM 10 � 12% of total NO x � London taxi fleet (June 2002):

Captive Fleets Today Contribution of Taxis – 2 � Athens taxis (large taxi fleet – no diesel passenger cars) � ~15,000 taxis (cars 1.8 M) � ~89,000 urban km / year (cars ~4,200 urban km/year) � Contribute to 15-20% of passenger cars urban activity � 84% diesel , ~16% LPG 1 0 0 % � Taxi age distribution: 7 5 % 5 0 % 2 5 % 0 % 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 Age (years) ETH

Captive Fleets Today Total urban bus fleet (TREMOVE) � Urban Bus Fleet according to TREMOVE (2004): EU15 Urban bus population in 2004 (thousand vehicles) 300 x 1000 250 200 150 100 50 0 Conventional EURO I EURO II EURO III CNG

Captive Fleets Today Urban bus technologies around Europe � More detailed information reveals a higher fraction of alternative technologies. � LPG : � CNG : A few thousand units in total in several European countries incl. new MSs (e.g. France (~700), Greece (~400)) � Biogas : A few decades of busses in Sweden, Austria, Germany � Ethanol : Some 250 busses in Stockholm

Captive Fleets Today Comparison of national and centralised data � Swedish fleet (end of 2001): � TREMOVE data � No detailed technology categorisation � Comparable with other sources (fleet size, activity) � Detail adequate to provide a nation-wide estimation � Detail not sufficient to produce conclusions for individual cities

Captive Fleets Today Total urban bus emissions � Total urban bus emissions in EU15 (TREMOVE 2004): EU15 urban bus emissions [t] for 2004 50000 5000 45000 4500 NOx 40000 4000 35000 3500 Contribution (%) of each technology to total urban bus emissions 90 NOx, CO VOC, PM 30000 3000 80 CO NOx 70 25000 2500 VOC 60 20000 2000 PM VOC 50 15000 1500 40 PM 30 10000 1000 CO 20 5000 500 10 0 0 0 Conventional EURO I EURO II EURO III Conventional EURO I EURO II EURO III Absolute Scale Technology Contribution

Captive Fleets Today Urban bus contribution to total emissions/activity (TREMOVE) Percentage (%) of total urban activity operated by busses in 2004 � Percentage of urban activity 3.5 (total mileage): 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 AT BE DE DK ES FI FR GR IT LU NL PT SE UK 12 � Percentage of total urban transport emissions 10 (based on TREMOVE data): 8 6 4 2 0 CO NOx PM VOC

Captive Fleets Today Needs for a more detailed characterisation/understanding - 1 (2) � Monitoring of technology evolution: A more precise monitoring, management and assessment of individual initiatives around Europe may be required to better design an efficient policy in the area. � Development of more precise emission factors: � Engine type approval data may not appropriate for inventories (g/energy instead of g/distance, specific to engines NOT vehicles) � Engine management may change from “fuel-efficiency” to “low- emissions”, depending on driving requirements � Aftertreatment devices may have a condition-specific efficiency � Hybrids and bi-fuelled vehicles have an irregular emission pattern � There is the necessity to enhance the emission performance reporting by means of chassis dyno tests over representative cycles, OBM and remote sensing (real-world operation)

Captive Fleets Today Needs for a more detailed characterisation/understanding - 2 � Understanding the effect of the resolution on AQ: Some fleets, and in particular urban busses, operate on specific routes, hence their contribution to pollution maximizes in these areas. � Example (TU Lisbon): Bus contribution in two routes in Lisbon • PM : 60% • NO x : 86% • This may be alternatively looked at on a per-passenger basis:

Captive Fleets Today Future AQ Targets - CAFÉ � Clean Air for Europe (CAFÉ) : � Main technical tool for the development of air pollution regulations � Identification of cost-effective sectoral measures to reach AQ targets � Development of thematic strategy on air pollution up to 2020 � Objective: “achieve levels of AQ that do not give rise to risks to human health and the environment” � Spatial resolution: 50 × 50 km² ⇒ not detailed for urban air quality understanding, in particular hot-spots

Captive Fleets Today Future AQ Targets – CITY-DELTA � CITY-DELTA looks at urban PM & O 3 with a finer grid (5 × 5 km ² ) : � Ozone � On a regional level, little scope for further improvements of emission controls beyond current legislation � Important sub-grid effects, identified only at fine modelling resolution � Consistency of model predictions and measurements depends on city � Air quality (model) results are highly sensitive to the quality of the emission inventories � Particulate Matter � Limited understanding on PM mass (models underestimate concentrations). This brings implications for the cost-effectiveness estimation of different measures � Large part of PM comes from the regional background, but there is linear correlation between emissions and concentrations

Captive Fleets Today Future AQ Targets – Street Emission Ceilings (SEC) 0.035 � SEC was initiated by the EEA/ETC/ACC to identify the origin of pollution hot-spots in different European cities. 0.030 � Main focus was: 0.025 � To develop a typology of cities and streets as a function of emissions, PM 2.5 / NO x 0.020 meteorology and geometry 0.015 � To study the origin of air quality standards exceedences 0.010 Ratio of emissions Workdays - summer Workdays - winter Weekends - summer 0.005 Weekends - winter 0.000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Time of day � This demonstrated: � The clear link (even hourly) between emissions and concentrations � That actual concentration ratios depend on season and time of day more than emission ratios (using current emission factors) � That detailed emission factors are needed

Captive Fleets Today European regulations relevant to captive fleet emissions � Air Quality Framework Directive (96/62/EC) and daughter directives set ambient emission standards for major pollutants and heavy metals and 2001/81/EC sets national emission ceilings . � Based on these, 70/220/EEC (light duty) and 88/77/EEC (heavy duty) and their several amendments set the emission standards and the supplementary regulations (OBD, in-use compliance, etc.). � Roadworthiness is of particular interest to captive fleets. Directive 96/96/EC (light duty) requires an annual smoke test, starting one year after vehicle registration. Directive 2000/30/EC sets the same requirements for heavy duty vehicles. � Mineral fuel quality should fulfill the requirements of directives 98/70/EC and 2003/17/EC (fuel sulphur down to 10 ppm). Biofuels are promoted by 2003/30/EC to replace a 2% and 5.75% of gasoline + diesel energy by 2005 and 2010 respectively. 2001/27/EC also covers TA of alternative fuel engines.

Captive Fleets Today European regulations for captive fleet financing / Regulation gaps � Directive 2003/96/EC allows for a different tax level to mineral fuels and biofuels. � The recent public procurement related directives (2004/27/EC, 2004/18/EC) allow for green procurement , i.e. environmental criteria may also be used in the decision process. �� � Evaluation of existing regulation � Emission standards: � � Fuel Regulations: � (emulsions � ) � Roadworthiness: � � Retrofitting: � � Green public procurement: allowed � , specifications �

Captive Fleets Today Summary of Specific Points � Captive fleets are contributors to urban PM and NOx � The significance of the contribution depends on spatial resolution � AQ is orientated towards a finer resolution (regional → urban → hot-spots) which will eventually highlight these issues � Local societies have been taking measures to reduce emissions from captive fleets � These are not widely known and might not be representatively taken into account in inventories � It is even more difficult to estimate the actual AQ benefit of such measures due to the lack of detailed emission information � Emission regulations / technical specifications do not cover the range of options available (e.g. retrofitting) � New tools available to local authorities (i.e. green public procurement)