Syntax: The Consequences of Recursion Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Question: But what’s so great about that? Course Readings Answer, Part 2: Recursion Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible Conjunction English sentences. Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs ▶ After all, suppose there were only finitely many possible English sentences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Consequences of Recursion Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Question: But what’s so great about that? Course Readings Answer, Part 2: Recursion Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible Conjunction English sentences. Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs ▶ After all, suppose there were only finitely many possible English sentences. ▶ Then, there’d necessarily be a longest English sentence, S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Consequences of Recursion Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Question: But what’s so great about that? Course Readings Answer, Part 2: Recursion Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible Conjunction English sentences. Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs ▶ After all, suppose there were only finitely many possible English sentences. ▶ Then, there’d necessarily be a longest English sentence, S . ▶ But, we could always make a longer sentence by embedding S : (Dave thinks that S ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Consequences of Recursion Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Question: But what’s so great about that? Course Readings Answer, Part 2: Recursion Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible Conjunction English sentences. Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs ▶ After all, suppose there were only finitely many possible English sentences. ▶ Then, there’d necessarily be a longest English sentence, S . ▶ But, we could always make a longer sentence by embedding S : (Dave thinks that S ) ▶ Therefore, there is no ‘longest possible’ English sentence (Just like there is no ‘biggest number’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Consequences of Recursion Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Question: But what’s so great about that? Course Readings Answer, Part 2: Recursion Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible Conjunction English sentences. Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs ▶ After all, suppose there were only finitely many possible English sentences. ▶ Then, there’d necessarily be a longest English sentence, S . ▶ But, we could always make a longer sentence by embedding S : (Dave thinks that S ) ▶ Therefore, there is no ‘longest possible’ English sentence (Just like there is no ‘biggest number’) ▶ Therefore, the number of possible English sentences is infinite ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Consequences of Recursion Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Recursion Conjunction The Main Importance of Recursion: Constituency Tests Recursion seems to make human language fundamentally Auxiliary Verbs different from other kinds of animal communication. ▶ Other organisms have complex ‘languages’ (bees, dolphins) ▶ But none of them have been found to exhibit recursion (so far) ▶ So recursion may be part of what makes human language so special... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Noun Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Current PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) PP → P (NP) Conjunction The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ Constituency Tests Problem: Auxiliary Verbs Our rules won’t let us make sentences like the following: ▶ Bill and Dave danced. ▶ The dog chased the young cat and the ugly boy. ▶ Dave walked past the school and the church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Noun Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Current PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) PP → P (NP) Conjunction The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ Constituency Tests The Pattern: Auxiliary Verbs Wherever English allows one NP , it also allows two NPs joined by ‘ and ’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Noun Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Current PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) PP → P (NP) Conjunction The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ Constituency Tests The Pattern: Auxiliary Verbs Wherever English allows one NP , it also allows two NPs joined by ‘ and ’. Temporary Solution: Let’s introduce the following, additional rule for NPs: NP → NP and NP (An NP can be formed from two other NPs joined by ‘and’). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Noun Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction PP → P (NP) ‘Meta-Rule’ CP → C S Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs We can now form those sentences that we couldn’t before: S NP VP NP and NP V N N danced Bill Dave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Noun Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction PP → P (NP) ‘Meta-Rule’ CP → C S Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs S NP VP N V PP Dave walked P NP past NP and NP the school the church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Verb Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction PP → P (NP) ‘Meta-Rule’ CP → C S Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs Problem: These rules still won’t let us make sentences like the following: ▶ Dave dances and smokes cigars. ▶ Tom walked into the house and sat down. ▶ Mary screamed and said her ankle hurt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Verb Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction PP → P (NP) ‘Meta-Rule’ CP → C S Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs The Pattern: Wherever English allows one VP , it also allows two VPs joined together by ‘ and ’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Verb Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction PP → P (NP) ‘Meta-Rule’ CP → C S Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs The Pattern: Wherever English allows one VP , it also allows two VPs joined together by ‘ and ’. Temporary Solution: Let’s introduce the following, additional rule for VPs: VP → VP and VP (A VP can be formed from two other VPs joined by ‘and’). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Noun Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction VP → VP and VP ‘Meta-Rule’ PP → P (NP) Constituency Tests CP → C S Auxiliary Verbs We can now form those sentences that we couldn’t before: S NP VP N VP and VP Dave V V NP dances smokes cigars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Prepositional Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction VP → VP and VP ‘Meta-Rule’ PP → P (NP) Constituency Tests CP → C S Auxiliary Verbs Problem: These rules still won’t let us make sentences like the following: ▶ Dave walked out the door and into the yard. ▶ People with guns and without licenses will be arrested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Prepositional Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction VP → VP and VP ‘Meta-Rule’ PP → P (NP) Constituency Tests CP → C S Auxiliary Verbs The Pattern: Wherever English allows one PP , it also allows two PPs joined together by ‘ and ’. Temporary Solution: Let’s introduce the following, additional rule for PPs: PP → PP and PP (A PP can be formed from two other PPs joined by ‘and’). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction of Prepositional Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction VP → VP and VP ‘Meta-Rule’ PP → P (NP) Constituency Tests PP → PP and PP Auxiliary Verbs CP → C S S NP VP N V PP Dave walked PP and PP P NP P NP out the door into the yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Summary of Our Conjunction Rules Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction VP → VP and VP ‘Meta-Rule’ PP → P (NP) Constituency Tests PP → PP and PP Auxiliary Verbs CP → C S Summary: So far, we’ve added three different rules to our system: ▶ NP → NP and NP ▶ VP → VP and VP ▶ PP → PP and PP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Summary of Our Conjunction Rules Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction VP → VP and VP ‘Meta-Rule’ PP → P (NP) Constituency Tests PP → PP and PP Auxiliary Verbs CP → C S Problem: These three separate rules are missing an obvious pattern! ▶ Wherever you can have any category X, you can also have ‘X and X’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Summary of Our Conjunction Rules Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion NP → NP and NP Conjunction VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) The Conjunction VP → VP and VP ‘Meta-Rule’ PP → P (NP) Constituency Tests PP → PP and PP Auxiliary Verbs CP → C S The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’: X → X and X (Where X can be any category (N, V, A, D, P , C) or any phrase (S, NP , VP , PP , CP , etc.)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Conjunction PP → P (NP) The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ X → X and X Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs How to Read Our New Rule: “For any label X, this is a rule of the syntax: X → X and X” ▶ So, our new ‘meta-rule’ makes all the following PS rules: ▶ NP → NP and NP ▶ VP → VP and VP ▶ PP → PP and PP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Conjunction PP → P (NP) The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ X → X and X Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs Our ‘meta-rule’ also makes some other PS rules we need: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Conjunction PP → P (NP) The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ X → X and X Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs Conjunction of Sentences: S → S and S S NP VP V CP N thinks C S Dave that S and S he sucks Joe rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Conjunction PP → P (NP) The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ X → X and X Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs Conjunction of CPs: CP → CP and CP S NP VP V CP N thinks CP and CP Dave C S C S that he sucks that Joe rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Conjunction PP → P (NP) The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ X → X and X Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs Conjunction of Ns: N → N and N S NP VP D N V some N and N fight dogs cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Conjunction PP → P (NP) The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ X → X and X Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs Conjunction of Vs: V → V and V S NP VP N V NP Dave V and V the carrots cooked sliced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Conjunction PP → P (NP) The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ X → X and X Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs Conjunction of Ps: P → P and P S NP VP V PP N walked P NP Dave P and P the house in around . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) Conjunction PP → P (NP) The Conjunction CP → C S ‘Meta-Rule’ X → X and X Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs Vocabulary: If two things are joined together by “and”, they are said to be: ▶ conjoined ▶ coordinated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Phrases and ‘Constituents’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Vocabulary: If a group of words in a sentence form a phrase on their own , they are said to be a constituent . Course Readings Recursion Illustration: “Dave likes the happy man.” Conjunction S Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition NP VP Auxiliary Verbs N V NP Dave likes D A N the happy man ▶ ‘the happy man’ is a constituent (Those words together on their own form a phrase in the sentence: the NP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Phrases and ‘Constituents’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Vocabulary: If a group of words in a sentence form a phrase on their own , they are said to be a constituent . Course Readings Recursion Illustration: “Dave likes the happy man.” Conjunction S Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition NP VP Auxiliary Verbs N V NP Dave likes D A N the happy man ▶ ‘likes the happy man’ is a constituent (Those words together on their own form a phrase in the sentence: the VP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Phrases and ‘Constituents’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Vocabulary: If a group of words in a sentence form a phrase on their own , they are said to be a constituent . Course Readings Recursion Illustration: “Dave likes the happy man.” Conjunction S Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition NP VP Auxiliary Verbs N V NP Dave likes D A N the happy man ▶ ‘the happy’ is not a constituent (Those words on their own don’t form a phrase in the sentence) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Phrases and ‘Constituents’ Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Vocabulary: If a group of words in a sentence form a phrase on their own , they are said to be a constituent . Course Readings Recursion Illustration: “Dave likes the happy man.” Conjunction S Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition NP VP Auxiliary Verbs N V NP Dave likes D A N the happy man ▶ ‘likes the’ is not a constituent (Those words on their own don’t form a phrase in the sentence) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Tests for Constituency Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Question: Course Readings Recursion ▶ Suppose I don’t already know the right structure for a Conjunction sentence... Constituency Tests ▶ How can I tell whether some bunch of words is Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition actually a constituent of not? Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Tests for Constituency Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Question: Course Readings Recursion ▶ Suppose I don’t already know the right structure for a Conjunction sentence... Constituency Tests ▶ How can I tell whether some bunch of words is Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition actually a constituent of not? Auxiliary Verbs Answer: There are some tests you can use! ▶ Linguists call these ‘ constituency tests ’. ▶ The first involves ‘conjunction’ (joining things with ‘and’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our ‘Meta-Rule’ for Conjunction: X → X and X ▶ This rule says that ‘and’ can only go between two Course Readings phrases of the same type. Recursion ▶ NP → NP and NP Conjunction ▶ VP → VP and VP Constituency Tests ▶ PP → PP and PP Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our ‘Meta-Rule’ for Conjunction: X → X and X ▶ This rule says that ‘and’ can only go between two Course Readings phrases of the same type. Recursion ▶ NP → NP and NP Conjunction ▶ VP → VP and VP Constituency Tests ▶ PP → PP and PP Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: ▶ Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our ‘Meta-Rule’ for Conjunction: X → X and X ▶ This rule says that ‘and’ can only go between two Course Readings phrases of the same type. Recursion ▶ NP → NP and NP Conjunction ▶ VP → VP and VP Constituency Tests ▶ PP → PP and PP Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: ▶ Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent. ▶ Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our ‘Meta-Rule’ for Conjunction: X → X and X ▶ This rule says that ‘and’ can only go between two Course Readings phrases of the same type. Recursion ▶ NP → NP and NP Conjunction ▶ VP → VP and VP Constituency Tests ▶ PP → PP and PP Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: ▶ Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent. ▶ Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’ ▶ Then, our conjunction rule would let you join together two such XPs with ‘and’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our ‘Meta-Rule’ for Conjunction: X → X and X ▶ This rule says that ‘and’ can only go between two Course Readings phrases of the same type. Recursion ▶ NP → NP and NP Conjunction ▶ VP → VP and VP Constituency Tests ▶ PP → PP and PP Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: ▶ Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent. ▶ Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’ ▶ Then, our conjunction rule would let you join together two such XPs with ‘and’ ▶ So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with ▶ ‘and’, followed by ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same categories as ‘X Y Z’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Recursion ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Conjunction ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Constituency Tests ▶ ‘and’, followed by Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Question by Repetition categories as ‘X Y Z’ Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Recursion ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Conjunction ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Constituency Tests ▶ ‘and’, followed by Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Question by Repetition categories as ‘X Y Z’ Auxiliary Verbs Illlustration: “Dave likes the happy man” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Recursion ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Conjunction ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Constituency Tests ▶ ‘and’, followed by Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Question by Repetition categories as ‘X Y Z’ Auxiliary Verbs Illlustration: “Dave likes the happy man” ▶ ‘The happy man’ is a constituent (an NP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Recursion ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Conjunction ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Constituency Tests ▶ ‘and’, followed by Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Question by Repetition categories as ‘X Y Z’ Auxiliary Verbs Illlustration: “Dave likes the happy man” ▶ ‘The happy man’ is a constituent (an NP). ▶ And, so we can follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of the same categories: (Dave likes the happy man and some angry cat ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Recursion ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Conjunction ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Constituency Tests ▶ ‘and’, followed by Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Question by Repetition categories as ‘X Y Z’ Auxiliary Verbs Illlustration: “Dave likes the happy man” ▶ ‘Likes the happy man’ is a constituent (a VP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Recursion ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Conjunction ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Constituency Tests ▶ ‘and’, followed by Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Question by Repetition categories as ‘X Y Z’ Auxiliary Verbs Illlustration: “Dave likes the happy man” ▶ ‘Likes the happy man’ is a constituent (a VP). ▶ And, so we can follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of the same categories: (Dave likes the happy man and hates some angry cat ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Recursion ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Conjunction ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Constituency Tests ▶ ‘and’, followed by Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Question by Repetition categories as ‘X Y Z’ Auxiliary Verbs Illlustration: “Dave likes the happy man” ▶ ‘The happy’ is not a constituent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Recursion ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Conjunction ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Constituency Tests ▶ ‘and’, followed by Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Question by Repetition categories as ‘X Y Z’ Auxiliary Verbs Illlustration: “Dave likes the happy man” ▶ ‘The happy’ is not a constituent. ▶ And so we can’t follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of the same categories. (*Dave likes the happy and some angry man) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Recursion ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Conjunction ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Constituency Tests ▶ ‘and’, followed by Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs categories as ‘X Y Z’ Illlustration: “Dave likes the happy man” ▶ ‘Likes the’ is not a constituent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Conjunction as Constituency Test Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Recursion ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Conjunction ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Constituency Tests ▶ ‘and’, followed by Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs categories as ‘X Y Z’ Illlustration: “Dave likes the happy man” ▶ ‘Likes the’ is not a constituent. ▶ And so we can’t follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of the same categories. (*Dave likes the and saw the happy man) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Applying the Test to a New Case Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’: Course Readings ▶ If some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent... Recursion ▶ Then , you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with Conjunction ▶ ‘and’, followed by Constituency Tests Conjunction ▶ Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition categories as ‘X Y Z’ Auxiliary Verbs Let’s now try this out on a new case! Degree Expressions: ▶ “The very tall man left.” ▶ The category of ‘very’ is a ‘Degree Expression’ (Deg). ▶ Other Degs include: too, kinda, more, most, least, ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Degs and Constituency Recursion, Conjunction, and Question: Constituency ▶ Do the Deg ‘very’ and the adjective ‘tall’ form a constituent? Course Readings Recursion ▶ That is, which of these tree structures is correct?: Conjunction S S Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) NP VP NP VP Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs D Deg A N V D AP N V The very tall man left The Deg A man left very tall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Degs and Constituency Recursion, Conjunction, and Question: Constituency ▶ Do the Deg ‘very’ and the adjective ‘tall’ form a constituent? Course Readings Recursion ▶ That is, which of these tree structures is correct?: Conjunction S S Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) NP VP NP VP Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs D Deg A N V D AP N V The very tall man left The Deg A man left very tall Our ‘Conjunction Test’: Take that sequence of words, follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of the same categories. ▶ If it sounds good, it’s a constituent! ▶ If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Degs and Constituency Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.” Try following “very tall” in this sentence with “and” + Deg + A ... Course Readings ▶ If it sounds good, it’s a constituent! Recursion Conjunction ▶ If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent! Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Degs and Constituency Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.” Try following “very tall” in this sentence with “and” + Deg + A ... Course Readings ▶ If it sounds good, it’s a constituent! Recursion Conjunction ▶ If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent! Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Result: “The very tall and kinda handsome man left.” Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Degs and Constituency Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.” Try following “very tall” in this sentence with “and” + Deg + A ... Course Readings ▶ If it sounds good, it’s a constituent! Recursion Conjunction ▶ If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent! Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Result: “The very tall and kinda handsome man left.” Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs ▶ This sentence sounds totally fine! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Degs and Constituency Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.” Try following “very tall” in this sentence with “and” + Deg + A ... Course Readings ▶ If it sounds good, it’s a constituent! Recursion Conjunction ▶ If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent! Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Result: “The very tall and kinda handsome man left.” Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs ▶ This sentence sounds totally fine! ▶ So we can conclude that “very tall” does form a constituent! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Degs and Constituency Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.” Try following “very tall” in this sentence with “and” + Deg + A ... Course Readings ▶ If it sounds good, it’s a constituent! Recursion Conjunction ▶ If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent! Constituency Tests Conjunction S Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs NP VP D AP N V The AP and AP man left Deg A Deg A very tall kinda handsome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Adjective Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Question: What’s the rule that combines a Deg (‘very’) and an A (‘tall’) Course Readings into a phrase? Recursion Conjunction Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Adjective Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Question: What’s the rule that combines a Deg (‘very’) and an A (‘tall’) Course Readings into a phrase? Recursion Conjunction Answer: Constituency Tests Conjunction ▶ We’ll call this type of a phrase an Adjective Phrase (AP) Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition ▶ Since it consists of a Deg and an A, the PS rule would be: Auxiliary Verbs AP → (Deg) A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Adjective Phrases Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Question: What’s the rule that combines a Deg (‘very’) and an A (‘tall’) Course Readings into a phrase? Recursion Conjunction Answer: Constituency Tests Conjunction ▶ We’ll call this type of a phrase an Adjective Phrase (AP) Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition ▶ Since it consists of a Deg and an A, the PS rule would be: Auxiliary Verbs AP → (Deg) A Our Updated PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP NP → (D) (AP*) N (CP) (PP*) VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) PP → P (NP) CP → C S AP → (Deg) A X → X and X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Recursion Conjunction ▶ Besides this, linguists have many other ‘tests’ for Constituency Tests whether a bunch of words forms a constituent. Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition ▶ In this class, we’ll learn just one more... Auxiliary Verbs (More are discussed in the reading...) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Basic Fact: We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a quizzical fashion: Course Readings Recursion ▶ Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.” Conjunction ▶ Person 2: “A lawyer?!?” Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Basic Fact: We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a quizzical fashion: Course Readings Recursion ▶ Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.” Conjunction ▶ Person 2: “A lawyer?!?” Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Crucial Fact: Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Basic Fact: We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a quizzical fashion: Course Readings Recursion ▶ Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.” Conjunction ▶ Person 2: “A lawyer?!?” Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Crucial Fact: Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . ▶ Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Basic Fact: We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a quizzical fashion: Course Readings Recursion ▶ Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.” Conjunction ▶ Person 2: “A lawyer?!?” Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Crucial Fact: Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . ▶ Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.” ▶ Person 2: “Likes the happy man?!?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Basic Fact: We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a quizzical fashion: Course Readings Recursion ▶ Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.” Conjunction ▶ Person 2: “A lawyer?!?” Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Crucial Fact: Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . ▶ Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.” ▶ Person 2: “Likes the happy man?!?” ▶ Person 2: “The happy man?!?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Basic Fact: We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a quizzical fashion: Course Readings Recursion ▶ Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.” Conjunction ▶ Person 2: “A lawyer?!?” Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Crucial Fact: Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . ▶ Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.” ▶ Person 2: “Likes the happy man?!?” ▶ Person 2: “The happy man?!?” ▶ Person 2: * “the happy?!?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Basic Fact: We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a quizzical fashion: Course Readings Recursion ▶ Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.” Conjunction ▶ Person 2: “A lawyer?!?” Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Crucial Fact: Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . ▶ Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.” ▶ Person 2: “Likes the happy man?!?” ▶ Person 2: “The happy man?!?” ▶ Person 2: * “the happy?!?” ▶ Person 2: * “likes the?!?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Basic Fact: We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a quizzical fashion: Course Readings Recursion ▶ Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.” Conjunction ▶ Person 2: “A lawyer?!?” Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Crucial Fact: Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . ▶ Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.” ▶ Person 2: “Likes the happy man?!?” ▶ Person 2: “The happy man?!?” ▶ Person 2: * “the happy?!?” ▶ Person 2: * “likes the?!?” The Rationale: If something is not a ‘constituent’, then it’s not a full phrase, and it’s ‘weird’ not to speak in full phrases... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Crucial Fact: In dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . Course Readings Recursion Conjunction Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) Question by Repetition Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Crucial Fact: In dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . Course Readings The Constituency Test: Recursion If we’re not sure whether some bunch of words in a sentence is Conjunction constituent, try ‘quizzically repeating’ it! Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ If it sounds natural, then those words form a constituent! Question by Repetition ▶ If it doesn’t, then they don’t form a constituent! Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Crucial Fact: In dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . Course Readings The Constituency Test: Recursion If we’re not sure whether some bunch of words in a sentence is Conjunction constituent, try ‘quizzically repeating’ it! Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ If it sounds natural, then those words form a constituent! Question by Repetition ▶ If it doesn’t, then they don’t form a constituent! Auxiliary Verbs Illustration: “Dave walked into the house ” ▶ Our rules predict that ‘walked’ and ‘into the house’ form a constituent (VP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Questioning by Repetition Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Crucial Fact: In dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent . Course Readings The Constituency Test: Recursion If we’re not sure whether some bunch of words in a sentence is Conjunction constituent, try ‘quizzically repeating’ it! Constituency Tests Conjunction Degree Expressions (Deg) ▶ If it sounds natural, then those words form a constituent! Question by Repetition ▶ If it doesn’t, then they don’t form a constituent! Auxiliary Verbs Illustration: “Dave walked into the house ” ▶ Our rules predict that ‘walked’ and ‘into the house’ form a constituent (VP). ▶ Our ‘repetition test’ for constituency confirms this. ▶ Person 1: Dave walked into the house. ▶ Person 2: Walked into the house?!? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Sentences With Multiple Verbs Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Our Current PS Rules: S → { NP , CP } VP Course Readings NP → (D) (AP*) N (CP) (PP*) Recursion VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*) PP → P (NP) Conjunction CP → C S Constituency Tests AP → (Deg) A Auxiliary Verbs X → X and X Problem: ▶ Our PS rules only let a single sentence have a single V: ▶ However, sentences can seem to have more than one V: ▶ Dave has bought a car. ▶ Dave did buy a car. ▶ Dave is buying a car. ▶ Dave will buy a car. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Auxiliary Verbs Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency The Challenge: Fix our rules so that sentences with multiple Vs are possible: Course Readings ▶ Dave has bought a car. Recursion ▶ Dave did buy a car. Conjunction Constituency Tests ▶ Dave is buying a car. Auxiliary Verbs ▶ Dave will buy a car. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Auxiliary Verbs Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency The Challenge: Fix our rules so that sentences with multiple Vs are possible: Course Readings ▶ Dave has bought a car. Recursion ▶ Dave did buy a car. Conjunction Constituency Tests ▶ Dave is buying a car. Auxiliary Verbs ▶ Dave will buy a car. Key Observation: ▶ In these kinds of Ss, the first V isn’t just any old verb of English. ▶ Rather, it can only be one of very limited group: ( has, did, is, will, can, must, should, ... ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Auxiliary Verbs Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency The Challenge: Fix our rules so that sentences with multiple Vs are possible: Course Readings ▶ Dave has bought a car. Recursion ▶ Dave did buy a car. Conjunction Constituency Tests ▶ Dave is buying a car. Auxiliary Verbs ▶ Dave will buy a car. Key Observation: ▶ In these kinds of Ss, the first V isn’t just any old verb of English. ▶ Rather, it can only be one of very limited group: ( has, did, is, will, can, must, should, ... ) Vocabulary Auxiliary Verb (Aux) = a V that can directly precede another V in an English sentence ( has, did, is, will, can, must, should, ... ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Auxiliary Verbs Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency The Challenge: Fix our rules so that sentences with multiple Vs are possible: Course Readings ▶ Dave has bought a car. Recursion ▶ Dave did buy a car. Conjunction Constituency Tests ▶ Dave is buying a car. Auxiliary Verbs ▶ Dave will buy a car. Key Question: In sentences like those above, does the Aux form a constituent with the VP ? S S NP Aux VP NP ?? N has bought a car N Aux VP Dave Dave has bought a car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Applying Our Constituency Tests! Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Key Fact: The sequence ‘Aux VP’ does pass our constituency tests! Course Readings Recursion Conjunction Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Applying Our Constituency Tests! Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Key Fact: The sequence ‘Aux VP’ does pass our constituency tests! Course Readings Recursion 1. The Conjunction Test: Conjunction The sequence ‘Aux VP’ can be followed by ‘and’ plus another ‘Aux VP’ sequence: Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs ▶ Dave has bought a car and will buy a house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Applying Our Constituency Tests! Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Key Fact: The sequence ‘Aux VP’ does pass our constituency tests! Course Readings Recursion 1. The Conjunction Test: Conjunction The sequence ‘Aux VP’ can be followed by ‘and’ plus another ‘Aux VP’ sequence: Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs ▶ Dave has bought a car and will buy a house . 2. The Repetition Test: The sequence ‘Aux VP’ can be ‘quizzically repeated’ ▶ Person 1: ‘Dave will buy a house.” ▶ Person 2: ‘Will buy a house?!?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax: Applying Our Constituency Tests! Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Key Fact: The sequence ‘Aux VP’ does pass our constituency tests! Course Readings Recursion 1. The Conjunction Test: Conjunction The sequence ‘Aux VP’ can be followed by ‘and’ plus another ‘Aux VP’ sequence: Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs ▶ Dave has bought a car and will buy a house . 2. The Repetition Test: The sequence ‘Aux VP’ can be ‘quizzically repeated’ ▶ Person 1: ‘Dave will buy a house.” ▶ Person 2: ‘Will buy a house?!?” Conclusion: The ‘Aux’ does form a constituent with the VP that follows it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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