Literary Analysis Syntax Review AP Literature and Composition 1 - PDF document

Literary Analysis Syntax Review AP Literature and Composition 1 SYNTAX n Syntax Defines Style Through Variety of Sentence Structure: n Syntax refers to sentence structure and the variation of phrases and clauses within, which the author manipulates: n to fit the occasion or situation n to reach his audience n to achieve his purpose . 2 SYNTAX n A Sentence is a Clause: n All clauses have a subject (S), a verb (V) , and sometimes a direct object (DO) and an indirect object (IO). n A sentence with only one subject (S) + verb (V) combination is called a simple sentence. Adding phrases to a simple sentence can make it very long, but it is still simple . n Sometimes a sentence has two or more clauses (S+V) + (S+V), joined by a coordinating conjunction such as: and, but, or, and the result is a compound sentence. 3 1

SYNTAX n Sometimes, long sentences are complex , with two or more subject- verb-object combinations (S+V) + (S+V) joined by a subordinating conjunction such as: however, although, which, that, nonetheless, and many of the personal pronouns that can sometimes be used as subordinating conjunctions. n So the terms, simple, compound and complex refer to the type of sentence structure used by the author. 4 SYNTAX n Another way to distinguish sentences is by their function: declarative, interrogatory, exclamatory or imperative. Their end punctuation provides the biggest clue to the sentence type. n The declarative sentence makes a statement and ends with a period (.) . The interrogative sentence ends with a question mark (?) , and the exclamatory sentence ends with and exclamation point (!) . n The imperative sentence ends with a period (.) , but it is distinguished because it starts with a verb and the subject is understood. n The imperative is easiest to remember by associating it with authority figures giving 5 orders: “Clean up”, “Be quiet”, “Sit down”. SYNTAX n Beginning method, without sophisticated vocabulary, can spot long sentences or short sentences . To notice and comment on such simple observations is helpful in discussing the author’s style . n Advanced method, should expand their vocabulary to properly name the long and short sentences and also noting the placement of the main clause or subject and verb (S+V) of important sentences. n The subject and verb (S+V) at the beginning of the sentence is called a loose or cumulative sentence. n If the sentence starts with subordinate clauses and a chain of descriptive phrases with the main subject-verb (S+V) combination at the end , it is called a periodic sentence. 6 2

SYNTAX n Periodic sentences are usually very long. n Example: Periodic sentence: Down the hill near the old swimming hole by the railroad tracks, not far from the schoolhouse and near the old watermill, the children (S) raced (V) to the barn. n The more common Cumulative sentences vary in length and tend to be shorter. n Example: Cumulative sentence: The children (S) raced (V) to the barn by way of the old schoolhouse next to the swimming hole down by the railroad tracks and near the old watermill. 7 SYNTAX n Phrases do NOT have a Subject and a Verb: n Phrases are important to enrich the detail of the sentence. Their function is to describe or modify either the subject or the verb, or to replace a noun. n Prepositional phrases add description and work like adjectives modifying nouns or adverbs modifying verbs. For instance, the prepositional phrase can be used as an adjective as in, “The road ( to school) ended.” or as an adverb, “The road ended (beyond the bridge) .” n Appositive phrases are set off by commas and simply restate the noun such as: Bob, my friend , lives next door. n The Verbal phrases are actually verb words with the “en” “ing” or “ed” ending working as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. They are: 8 participles, gerunds and infinitives. SYNTAX n Participles do the work of adjectives (to modify nouns or pronouns) or adverbs (to modify verbs). For example the participle phrase can be used as an adjective as in, “The speeding car crashed.”, or as an adverb in, “The car crashed speedily .” n Gerunds are verb forms that replace nouns or pronouns as in, “ Running is my best sport.” n Infinitives always start with the word, “to” and end with a verb, as in “to work”. They replace nouns or pronouns as either the subject or object of a sentence; as adverbs that modify verbs, or as adjectives that modify nouns. Infinitives are easy to spot because “to” followed by a noun in the prepositional phase (to + noun) is very different than the “to” followed by a verb of the infinitive phrase (to + verb). 9 3

Syntax Sentences = Subject + Verb + Direct Object Indirect Clauses: + Object Must have, unless Must have Optional Must first have a sentence is a direct object command Sentence Types Simple = Compound = Complex = One Compound/ One S+V Two equal S+V’s main S+V and Complex = Two joined by and, but one or more equal S+V’s, + or yet subordinate S+V one or more subordinate SV Sentence Patterns Declarative = Interrogative = Exclamatory = Imperative = a makes a asks a question makes a strong or command with statement sudden statement a verb and “you” understood Sentence Length Periodic – less Cumulative – common with S+V more common last with S+V first No Subject No Verb Phrases: Phrase Types Prepositions – Appositives – Verbals – verb work as work as a repeat words that work adjectives or or clarification of as nouns, adjects adverbs a noun or adverbs Types of Verbal Participles – Infinitives – verb Gerunds – verb verb words words with “to” in words ending in Phrases ending in “en”, front that work as “ed” or “ing” that 10 “ed” or “ing” that nouns adjectives work as nouns work as adverbs or adverbs or adjectives SYNTAX n Syntax also includes the author’s variations of sentence components as an element of style used to emphasize his message. n Some common variations of emphasis are: n word order (inversion) n juxtaposition of opposites (oxymoron) n repetition of words, phrases or clauses n rhetorical questions to explore ideas (not expecting and answer) n variations of punctuation n The careful reader will spot them easily. 11 SYNTAX n For example, when poet Stephen Crane says: “Do not weep, maiden for war is kind ”, we should immediately recognize the extreme disparity between the words, “war” and “kind”. n The denotation of the two words is opposite in meaning, and n The connotation of the two words is opposite in meaning, which should signal the reader that something is very wrong, and the author is using juxtaposition to show it. 12 4

SYNTAX Syntax variations Examples of syntax variations for emphasis Inversion Carried (V), she (S) was , by others in her study group. The verb of the sentence is placed before the subject. Juxtaposition Do not weep, maiden, for war is kind. The italicized words are opposite in meaning giving a sudden contrast of ideas that signals something is wrong. Repetition I have a dream that all men are equal; I have a dream that my sons can aspire to the highest positions; I have a dream … is a clause that is repeated 17 times in the famous Martin Luther King speech for dramatic effect. Rhetorical Shall we not rise up and be counted, make our cause Question be known? If we do not, we are fool-hardy in that choice. A question posed, and then answered. The function is to prod the listener to thought. Parallel Structure Marlene enjoyed the outdoor sports of skiing, hiking and riding horses, but much preferred the indoor sport of ice-skating. Items or ideas in a series must appear in the same grammatical form. Punctuation I heard a fly buzz when I died – He landed – Where I could not see to see. Here, the dash is used to signal 13 an extended pause for dramatic effect. 5