Introduction to English Linguistics 4: Grammar and Syntax
Grammar and Syntax Grammar The rules of language, comprising syntax and inflection Syntax The hierarchical structure of language
Lexical Words, Open Class Noun Adjective Non-auxiliary verb Adverb Function Words, Closed Class Article Pronoun Preposition Auxiliary verb Conjunction Grammar: Traditional Parts of Speech of English ▶ Noun ▶ Adjective ▶ Pronoun ▶ Verb ▶ Adverb ▶ Preposition ▶ Conjunction ▶ Interjection ▶ Article ▶ (Numeral) ▶ (Determiner)
Grammar: Traditional Parts of Speech of English Lexical Words, Open Class ▶ Noun ▶ Noun ▶ Adjective ▶ Adjective ▶ Pronoun ▶ Non-auxiliary verb ▶ Verb ▶ Adverb ▶ Adverb ▶ Preposition Function Words, Closed Class ▶ Conjunction ▶ Article ▶ Interjection ▶ Pronoun ▶ Article ▶ Preposition ▶ (Numeral) ▶ Auxiliary verb ▶ (Determiner) ▶ Conjunction
Phrase Structure phrase (specifier) head (complement) Syntax: Hierarchy Sentence Clause Phrase Word
Syntax: Hierarchy Sentence Phrase Structure Clause phrase Phrase (specifier) head (complement) Word
Syntax: Hierarchy Sentence Phrase Structure NP Clause Det N PP a house P NP Phrase of N cards Word
Syntax: Hierarchy Sentence Sentence Types Clause ▶ Declarative ▶ Interrogative ▶ Imperative Phrase ▶ (Exclamative) Word
Subordination she slammed the door. When Claudia got home,
Subordination I see what you did there.
Coordination Tristan likes Aubrey, but Aubrey likes books.
Traditional Elements of Syntax Aishah ..... ofuen eats ✿✿✿✿✿✿ berries ............. in the garden. ▶ Subject ▶ Predicate ▶ Predicator ▶ .......... (Modifier) ▶ Adverbial phrase ▶ Prepositional phrase ▶ (Complement) ✿✿✿✿✿✿✿✿✿✿✿ ▶ Object - Direct - Indirect
Word Order in Present-Day English headclause: SVO Jack eats carrots. subclause: SVO I know [that Jack eats carrots]. I know [that Jack carrots eats]. adv + headclause: SVO Then Jack ate a carrot. Then ate Jack a carrot. adv + headclause: VS (only with Then came the afuershock. certain intransitive verbs) imperative: VO Eat your greens! interrogative with be : VS Why was he here? interrogative with aux.: vSV What have I done?
Word Order in Old English headclause SVO God lufode Iācob. headclause VSO Wæs hē Osrices sunu. headclause SOV Þū þæt cwǣde. subclause SOV Ic wāt [þæt þū mē gehȳrst]. adv + headclause VSO Ðā slōg se wind þone lēg on þæt hūs. adv + headclause SV Þā sēo fǣmne cwæð: … adv + headcl. + pre. VSiO Þā cwæð s engel tō hyre: … adv + headcl. + prep. ViOS Þā cw him hǣlend tō: … prep + headclause VSO On þǣre tīde cwæð Petrus … prep + headclause SVO On ðǣm dǣge hē gemētte āne ēa. subclause sIoV Ic wāt [þæt hē inc ābolgen wyrð]. subclause iOVS Ic wāt [þæt ūs cymð se Mæssias]. imperative VSO Ne et ðū of þām trēowe!
Word Order in Middle English headclause SVO Adam clepide alle thingis. headclause VS And maad is euen and moru, the thrid day. subclause SVO And God saiȝ [that it were good]. adv + headclause SVO Than Noe vndirstode that wateres hadden cesyd vpon erthe. adv + headclause VS Than came Hernyer the trautour. imperative: VO Honour thi fader and thi moder. interrogative: VS Where art thou? Why comaundide God to ȝow, that ȝe shulden not ete of ech tree of paradis?
Word Order in Sum ▶ Old English ▶ Highly variable ▶ Headclauses default to SVO ▶ Subclauses concentrate their verbs at the end (SOV) ▶ Imperatives have VSO ▶ Middle English ▶ Less variable than OE, more variable than PDE ▶ Normally SVO ▶ Interrogative clauses do not use a dummy auxiliary ▶ Imperatives have VO ▶ Present-Day English ▶ Rigidly SVO in declarative statements ▶ Interrogatives and imperatives start with the (auxiliary) verb ▶ Imperatives have VO
Syntactic Schools Generative (or Transformational) Grammar A linguistic model postulating an innate set of syntactic rules fsom which all linguistic utterances are generated, involving a transformation fsom an underlying deep structure to the apparent surface structure . [Deep Structure] → [Subsystem] → [Surface Structure] Cognitive Grammar Understands language as an abstract symbolic system directly rooted in the same cognitive processes used for other thought processes and thus not routed through a syntactic subsystem.
Generative Grammar Phrase Structure Rules Rules for parsing syntactic structures, defining the constitution of phrases with a view to finding structural correspondences across languages. S → NP VP: A sentence consists of a noun phrase followed by a verb phrase . NP → (Det) (A) N (PP): A noun phrase consists of a noun preceded by the optional elements determiner and adjective and followed by the optional element prepositional phrase. NP Noun phrase AP Adjective phrase VP Verb phrase PP Preposition phrase AdvP Adverbial phrase Det Determiner Deg Degree word Aux Auxiliary verb Con Conjunction S Sentence
(Generative) Syntactic Constituents (Cf. parts of speech.) Label Description N Noun V Verb ▶ Lexical A Adjective P Preposition ▶ Can head a phrase Adv Adverb T Tense C Complementizer Det Determiner ▶ Nonlexical Deg Degree word ▶ Cannot head a phrase Aux Auxiliary verb Con Conjunction ▶ Pronoun ≡ N without specifier or complement ▶ Possessive ≡ N
X-Bar Theory Models all phrases as specifier-head structures by positing a projected head, raising specifiers above the level of complements; see O’Grady. Multiple Branching Schema X-Bar Schema XP XP X ′ (specifier) (specifier) head (complement) head (complement)
X-Bar Theory Models all phrases as specifier-head structures by positing a projected head, raising specifiers above the level of complements; see O’Grady. Multiple Branching Schema X-Bar Schema NP NP N ′ Det Det N PP a N PP a house P NP P ′ house NP of N N ′ P cards of N cards
X-Bar Theory Models all phrases as specifier-head structures by positing a projected head, raising specifiers above the level of complements; see O’Grady. Multiple Branching Schema X-Bar Schema NP NP N ′ Det Det N PP a N PP a house P NP house P NP of N of N cards cards X ′ level only required in phrases with both specifier and complement.
X-Bar Theory Models all phrases as specifier-head structures by positing a projected head, raising specifiers above the level of complements; see O’Grady. Multiple Branching Schema X-Bar Schema NP NP N ′ Det Det N PP a N PP a house P N house P N of cards of cards (You may also omit XP where it’s just a head, but I won’t here.)
X-Bar Phrase Structure Full Schema Compact Schema NP NP Det N ′ Det N the N the law law
X-Bar Phrase Structure Full Schema Compact Schema PP PP P ′ NP P NP P Det N ′ in Det N in the N the rain rain
X-Bar Phrase Structure Full Schema Compact Schema VP VP V ′ NP V NP V Det N ′ read Det N read a N a book book
X-Bar Phrase Structure (Full Schema) NP N ′ Det the N PP sound P ′ NP N ′ P Det of the N surf
X-Bar Phrase Structure (Compact Schema) NP N ′ Det the N PP sound P NP of Det N the surf
X-Bar Sentence Structure (Full Schema) TP T ′ NP N ′ T VP N +pst V ′ NP You N ′ V NP ate N ′ N N lunch my
X-Bar Sentence Structure (Compact Schema) TP NP T ′ N T VP You +pst V NP ate NP N N lunch my
X-Bar Auxiliary Structure (Full Schema) TP NP T ′ N ′ T VP N did V ′ NP You V NP N ′ eat N ′ N N lunch my
X-Bar Auxiliary Structure (Compact Schema) TP NP T ′ N T VP You did V NP eat NP N N lunch my
X-Bar Sentence Structure (Full Schema) TP T ′ NP N ′ T VP N -pst V ′ NP We V N ′ Det miss the N PP sound P ′ NP N ′ P Det of the N surf
X-Bar Sentence Structure (Compact Schema) TP NP T ′ N T VP We -pst V NP miss Det N ′ the N PP sound P NP of Det N the surf
X-Bar Yes/No-Movement (Full Schema) CP C ′ TP V C NP T ′ are +q N ′ T VP N V ′ -pst NP you N ′ V t N Tarzan
X-Bar Yes/No-Movement (Compact Schema) CP C ′ TP V C NP T ′ are +q N T VP you -pst V NP t N Tarzan
X-Bar Wh- Movement (Full Schema) CP AdvP C ′ Adv ′ C TP Adv V T ′ NP +q where is N ′ NP T VP N ′ V ′ N -pst AdvP Adv ′ N food V my t Adv t
X-Bar Wh- Movement (Compact Schema) CP C ′ AdvP Adv C TP where V NP T ′ +q is NP N T V ′ N food -pst V AdvP my t Adv t
P . S. Langeslag
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