Bits and Bytes Topics Topics Why bits? Representing information - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Systems I Bits and Bytes Topics Topics  Why bits?  Representing information as bits  Binary/Hexadecimal  Byte representations » numbers » characters and strings » Instructions  Bit-level manipulations  Boolean algebra  Expressing in C

Why Don ʼ t Computers Use Base 10? Base 10 Number Representation Base 10 Number Representation  That ʼ s why fingers are known as “digits”  Natural representation for financial transactions  Floating point number cannot exactly represent $1.20  Even carries through in scientific notation  1.5213 X 10 4 Implementing Electronically Implementing Electronically  Hard to store  ENIAC (First electronic computer) used 10 vacuum tubes / digit  Hard to transmit  Need high precision to encode 10 signal levels on single wire  Messy to implement digital logic functions  Addition, multiplication, etc. 2

Binary Representations Base 2 Number Representation Base 2 Number Representation  Represent 15213 10 as 11101101101101 2  Represent 1.20 10 as 1.0011001100110011[0011]… 2  Represent 1.5213 X 10 4 as 1.1101101101101 2 X 2 13 Electronic Implementation Electronic Implementation  Easy to store with bistable elements  Reliably transmitted on noisy and inaccurate wires 0 1 0 3.3V 2.8V 0.5V 0.0V  Straightforward implementation of arithmetic functions 3

Encoding Byte Values Decimal Binary Byte = 8 bits Byte = 8 bits Hex  Binary 00000000 2 to 11111111 2 0 0 0000  Decimal: 0 10 to 255 10 1 1 0001 2 2 0010  Hexadecimal 00 16 to FF 16 3 3 0011  Base 16 number representation 4 4 0100 5 5 0101  Use characters ʻ 0 ʼ to ʻ 9 ʼ and ʻ A ʼ to ʻ F ʼ 6 6 0110  Write FA1D37B 16 in C as 0xFA1D37B 7 7 0111 » Or 0xfa1d37b 8 8 1000 9 9 1001 A 10 1010 B 11 1011 C 12 1100 D 13 1101 E 14 1110 F 15 1111 4

Machine Words Machine Has “ “Word Size Word Size” ” Machine Has  Nominal size of integer-valued data  Including addresses  Most current machines are 32 bits (4 bytes)  Limits addresses to 4GB  Becoming too small for memory-intensive applications  High-end systems are 64 bits (8 bytes)  Potentially address ≈ 1.8 X 10 19 bytes  Machines support multiple data formats  Fractions or multiples of word size  Always integral number of bytes 5

Word-Oriented Memory Organization 64-bit 32-bit Bytes Addr. Words Words 0000 Addr 0001 Addresses Specify Byte Addresses Specify Byte = 0002 0000 ?? Locations Locations Addr 0003 =  Address of first byte in 0004 0000 ?? Addr word 0005 = 0006  Addresses of successive 0004 ?? 0007 words differ by 4 (32-bit) or 0008 8 (64-bit) Addr 0009 = 0010 0008 ?? Addr 0011 = 0008 ?? 0012 Addr 0013 = 0014 0012 ?? 0015 6

Data Representations Sizes of C Objects (in Bytes) Sizes of C Objects (in Bytes)  C Data Type Typical 32-bit Intel IA32  int 4 4  long int 4 4  char 1 1  short 2 2  float 4 4  double 8 8  long double 8 10/12  char * 4 4 » Or any other pointer 7

Byte Ordering How should bytes within multi-byte word be ordered in How should bytes within multi-byte word be ordered in memory? memory? Conventions Conventions  Sun ʼ s, Mac ʼ s are “Big Endian” machines  Least significant byte has highest address  Alphas, PC ʼ s are “Little Endian” machines  Least significant byte has lowest address 8

Byte Ordering Example Big Endian Endian Big  Least significant byte has highest address Little Endian Endian Little  Least significant byte has lowest address Example Example  Variable x has 4-byte representation 0x01234567  Address given by &x is 0x100 Big Endian 0x100 0x101 0x102 0x103 01 23 45 67 01 23 45 67 Little Endian 0x100 0x101 0x102 0x103 67 45 23 01 67 45 23 01 9

Representing Integers Decimal: 15213 int A = 15213; A = 15213; int Binary: 0011 1011 0110 1101 int B = -15213; B = -15213; int long int int C = 15213; C = 15213; long Hex: 3 B 6 D Linux/Alpha A Sun A Linux C Alpha C Sun C 6D 00 6D 6D 00 3B 00 3B 3B 00 00 3B 00 00 3B 00 6D 00 00 6D 00 00 Linux/Alpha B Sun B 00 93 FF 00 C4 FF FF C4 FF 93 Two ʼ s complement representation (Covered next lecture) 10

Representing Pointers (addresses) Alpha P int B = -15213; B = -15213; int int *P = &B; *P = &B; int A0 FC Alpha Address FF Hex: 1 F F F F F C A 0 FF 01 Binary: 0001 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1100 1010 0000 00 Sun P 00 Sun Address EF 00 Hex: E F F F F B 2 C FF Binary: 1110 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 0010 1100 Linux P FB 2C D4 Linux Address F8 Hex: B F F F F 8 D 4 FF Binary: 1011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1000 1101 0100 BF Different compilers & machines assign different locations to objects 11

Representing Floats Float F = 15213.0; Float F = 15213.0; Linux/Alpha F Sun F 00 46 B4 6D 6D B4 46 00 IEEE Single Precision Floating Point Representation IEEE Single Precision Floating Point Representation IEEE Single Precision Floating Point Representation Hex: Hex: Hex: 4 6 6 D B 4 0 0 4 6 6 D B 4 0 0 4 6 6 D B 4 0 0 Binary: 0100 0110 0110 1101 1011 0100 0000 0000 Binary: 0100 0110 0110 1101 1011 0100 0000 0000 Binary: 0100 0110 0110 1101 1011 0100 0000 0000 15213: 1110 1101 1011 01 15213: 1110 1101 1011 01 15213: 1110 1101 1011 01 Not same as integer representation, but consistent across machines Can see some relation to integer representation, but not obvious 12

Representing Strings char S[6] = "15213"; char S[6] = "15213"; Strings in C Strings in C  Represented by array of characters Linux/Alpha S Sun S  Each character encoded in ASCII format 31 31  Standard 7-bit encoding of character set 35 35  Other encodings exist, but uncommon 32 32  Character “0” has code 0x30 31 31 » Digit i has code 0x30 + i 33 33  String should be null-terminated 00 00  Final character = 0 Compatibility Compatibility  Byte ordering not an issue  Data are single byte quantities  Text files generally platform independent  Except for different conventions of line termination character(s)! 13

Machine-Level Code Representation Encode Program as Sequence of Instructions Encode Program as Sequence of Instructions  Each simple operation  Arithmetic operation  Read or write memory  Conditional branch  Instructions encoded as bytes  Alpha ʼ s, Sun ʼ s, Mac ʼ s use 4 byte instructions » Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)  PC ʼ s use variable length instructions » Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)  Different instruction types and encodings for different machines  Most code not binary compatible Programs are Byte Sequences Too! Programs are Byte Sequences Too! 14

Representing Instructions int sum( sum(int int x, x, int int y) y) int Alpha sum Sun sum PC sum { { return x+y; return x+y; 00 81 55 } } 00 C3 89 30 E0 E5  For this example, Alpha & 42 08 8B Sun use two 4-byte 01 90 45 instructions 80 02 0C  Use differing numbers of FA 00 03 instructions in other cases 6B 09 45  PC uses 7 instructions with 08 lengths 1, 2, and 3 bytes 89  Same for NT and for Linux EC  NT / Linux not fully binary 5D compatible C3 Different machines use totally different instructions and encodings 15

Boolean Algebra Developed by George Boole Boole in 19th Century in 19th Century Developed by George  Algebraic representation of logic  Encode “True” as 1 and “False” as 0 And Or And Or  A&B = 1 when both A=1 and  A|B = 1 when either A=1 or B=1 B=1 | 0 1 & 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 Not Not Exclusive-Or (Xor Xor) ) Exclusive-Or (  ~A = 1 when A=0  A^B = 1 when either A=1 or B=1, but not both ~ ^ 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 16

Application of Boolean Algebra Applied to Digital Systems by Claude Shannon Applied to Digital Systems by Claude Shannon  1937 MIT Master ʼ s Thesis  Reason about networks of relay switches  Encode closed switch as 1, open switch as 0 A&~B Connection when A ~B A&~B | ~A&B ~A B = A^B ~A&B 17

Integer Algebra Integer Arithmetic Integer Arithmetic  〈 Z, +, *, –, 0, 1 〉 forms a “ring”  Addition is “sum” operation  Multiplication is “product” operation  – is additive inverse  0 is identity for sum  1 is identity for product 18

Boolean Algebra Boolean Algebra Boolean Algebra  〈 {0,1}, |, &, ~, 0, 1 〉 forms a “Boolean algebra”  Or is “sum” operation  And is “product” operation  ~ is “complement” operation (not additive inverse)  0 is identity for sum  1 is identity for product 19