Sense v. reference Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Sense: intensional, decontextualized (an item in a Preliminaries The job of dictionary has senses) semantics Referential Words denote their extensions theories Conceptual semantics Referent: extensional, in-context (what is picked out in Some core problems the world by a particular expression used by a speaker in a Lexical particular context) analysis Sense and word relations Speakers refer to referents Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Sentence meaning Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of How does the meaning of sentences relate to the meaning semantics of individual words, or intermediate constituents? Referential theories Conceptual Compositionality: the meaning of a larger expression is semantics Some core problems determined by the meaning of the components and the Lexical way they are put together analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Sentence meaning II Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer The meaning of a sentence is its truth value (1 or 0) Preliminaries Knowing the meaning of a sentence tells a speaker what The job of semantics conditions have to hold for the sentence to be true (truth Referential theories conditions) Conceptual semantics Most sentences are true only in particular contexts. But Some core problems some are always true (tautologies) and some are always Lexical analysis false (contradictions): Sense and word relations Boys are male human beings. Approaches to lexical analysis Squares are round. Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Sentence meaning III Semantics J. Entailment: one sentence A entails another B, if whenever Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer A is true, B is also true, in all conceivable circumstances Barack Obama is the president of the US. Preliminaries Barack Obama is a US citizen. The job of semantics Entailment is usually asymmetric, and negation reverses Referential theories entailment: Conceptual semantics Barack Obama is not a US citizen. Some core problems Barack Obama is not the president of the US. Lexical analysis Paraphrase: Two sentences are synonymous, if they entail Sense and word relations each other. Approaches to lexical analysis Componential Contradictory: two sentences can’t both be simultaneously analysis Cognitive false or true semantics Formal Bill is dead v. Bill is alive approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Sentence meaning IV Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of Presupposition: if sentence A presupposes B, then B holds semantics whether A is true or false Referential theories Conceptual The mayor will open the new school this afternoon. semantics Some core The mayor won’t open the new school this afternoon. problems There is a mayor. Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Ambiguity Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Units of language may have more than one meaning. The job of At the level of phrases and sentences, we can have semantics Referential structural ambiguity theories Conceptual I saw the man with the telescope. semantics Some core problems I wanted him gone by midnight. Lexical Thus, the meanings of a larger unit depend on the analysis Sense and word components and the way they are put together. relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
The man with the telescope Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries (ROOT (ROOT (S The job of (S (NP (PRP I)) semantics (NP (PRP I)) (VP (VBD saw) Referential (VP (VBD saw) (NP theories (NP (DT the) (NN man)) (NP (DT the) (NN man)) Conceptual (PP (IN with) (PP (IN with) semantics (NP (DT the) (NN telescope)) (NP (DT the) (NN telescope)) Some core problems ) ) ) ) Lexical ) ) analysis ) ) Sense and word ) relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Compositional semantics Semantics Basic ideas: parts of a sentence refer to sets of (ordered J. Ruppenhofer, n-tuples of) entities A. Palmer Combining meanings consists of deriving sets from given Preliminaries sets, or doing set intersection or union The job of semantics Pat kissed Kim. Referential theories transitive verb ( kissed ): the set of pairs of individuals X Conceptual semantics and Y such that X Verb-ed (kissed) Y Some core problems transitive verb+object ( kissed Kim ): the meaning of [ VP Lexical VP NP] is the set of individuals X such that X is the first analysis Sense and word member of any pair in the meaning of V ( kissed ) whose relations Approaches to second member is the meaning of NP ( Kim ) lexical analysis Componential saturated verb phrase+subject ( Pat kissed Kim ): the analysis Cognitive meaning of [ S NP VP] is this truth condition: if the semantics Formal meaning of NP is a subset of the meaning of VP (a set of approaches Syntax - individuals), then S is true otherwise it is false. Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Anomaly: compositional failure Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, words have no meaning A. Palmer meanings can’t be combined by available rules (Colorless Preliminaries green ideas sleep furiously) The job of semantics idioms can’t be (fully) composed Referential theories metaphor: understanding something about one domain of Conceptual semantics experience based on the structure of another Some core problems His argument collapsed. Lexical analysis That theory has no foundation. Sense and word The theory needs more support. relations Approaches to lexical analysis metonymy: evoking something through a contiguous Componential analysis element of experience Cognitive semantics I am parked across the street. (driver for car) Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Terminology: Utterance, sentence, proposition Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, Utterance: linguistic unit of production A. Palmer Sentence: abstract grammatical elements obtained from Preliminaries utterances The job of semantics Proposition: logical representation of semantic content, Referential theories abstracting over: Conceptual semantics Voice : Tony wrecked my car; My car was wrecked by Some core problems Tony. Lexical analysis Information structure : It was my car that Tony Sense and word wrecked; The thing that Tony wrecked was my car; What relations Approaches to Tony wrecked was my car. lexical analysis Componential Speech act : Did Tony wreck your car? Tony wrecked analysis Cognitive your car. semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Outline Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries 1 Preliminaries The job of semantics The job of semantics 2 Referential theories Conceptual semantics Some core Lexical analysis 3 problems Lexical analysis Sense and word Exercises 4 relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Mental representations Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer There is more to meaning than denotation The evening star is the morning star. Preliminaries The job of What is the nature of mental representations of word semantics meanings? Referential theories images? (dog, car; ?war, ?democracy) Conceptual semantics concepts? Some core problems But then what is a concept? A propositional description? Lexical analysis How can you find out? Sense and word relations if you’re pessimistic about this line of research → Approaches to lexical analysis referential theory Componential analysis else, stick with conceptual semantics Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Concepts Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Only some concepts are lexicalized by single words Preliminaries The ones that aren’t probably aren’t as broadly useful The job of semantics The acquisition of concepts by children is an important Referential theories Conceptual problem (are some concepts innate?) semantics Some core problems Approaches to describing concepts Lexical Necessary and sufficient conditions analysis Prototypes Sense and word relations Approaches to Concepts are interrelated lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Componential analysis, Feature semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Necessary and sufficient conditions used to describe Preliminaries concepts The job of Male Female semantics Referential theories ovine ram ewe Conceptual semantics equine stallion mare Some core problems bovine bull cow Lexical analysis But: for some concepts it’s very difficult to come up with Sense and word relations such features Approaches to lexical analysis Also, speakers talk about things they can’t properly define Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Prototypes Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries foster mother (legally appointed caregiver) The job of semantics adoptive mother (legal guardian) Referential theories Conceptual birth mother (birthing event) semantics Some core problems nurturing mother (versus wet nurse) Lexical analysis genetic mother (dna-donor) Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Concept relations Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, Conceptual hierarchies (is-a) A. Palmer We can think of the attributes of the concepts as either Preliminaries necessary and sufficient conditions or as prototypical The job of semantics properties Referential theories Research by Rosch and colleagues has shown that there is Conceptual semantics a basic level of categorization; e.g. dog is basic level Some core problems while dachshund is subordinate and canine is superordinate Lexical analysis Sense and word simpler, shorter words relations Approaches to lexical analysis children learn them faster Componential analysis used more frequently Cognitive semantics used in spontaneously naming objects Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
What is the relationship between lexicalized concepts and general reasoning abilities? Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer linguistic relativity: lexicalized concepts impose restrictions on possibly ways of thinking Preliminaries The job of language of thought hypothesis: semantics Referential there is thinking that does not use linguistic knowledge theories Conceptual (e.g. rotating geometrical figures in your head) semantics Some core based on that, hypothesis that thinking and speaking use problems altogether different representations Lexical analysis also, language is underspecified: speakers mean more and Sense and word relations hearers understand more than the words say Approaches to lexical analysis speakers of all languages may use a shared language of Componential analysis thought, mentalese Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Outline Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries 1 Preliminaries The job of semantics The job of semantics 2 Referential theories Conceptual semantics Some core Lexical analysis 3 problems Lexical analysis Sense and word Exercises 4 relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Literal vs. non-literal meaning Semantics Speakers cannot always be taken ’literally’ at their word. J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of semantics Referential theories Conceptual semantics Some core problems Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Figures of speech Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Speakers often speak figuratively . The job of For instance, they may exaggerate (hyperbole): semantics Referential I’m hungry. theories Conceptual I’m starving. semantics Some core problems I could eat a horse. Lexical The best-known figures of speech are metaphor and analysis Sense and word metonymy relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Metonymy Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries A speaker accesses one concept by a “contiguous” one The job of The White House said ... (Place for people in place) semantics Referential The tuna sandwich wants to pay. (Food for customer in theories Conceptual restaurant) semantics Some core problems Metonymies are not always available Lexical #Two days later I saw the tuna sandwich in the pub down analysis Sense and word the street. relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Metaphor Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of Understanding one domain in terms of parts of the semantics Referential theories structure of another Conceptual semantics Poetic metaphor is just an extreme and noticeable case of Some core problems this Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Metaphor II Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Some metaphors are very deeply entrenched and they are not perceived anymore. Preliminaries The job of I wasted an hour on this project. semantics Do you have 10 minutes to spare ? I’d like to show you Referential theories something. Conceptual semantics I’ve invested too much time to stop now. Some core problems You need to use your time more wisely. Lexical My wheels ended up in the snow and I lost 10 seconds. analysis Sense and word relations Metaphorical uses don’t carry all the inferences of the Approaches to lexical analysis source domain Componential analysis #Can you loan me 2 hours? Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Idioms Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Idioms are by definition non-compositional Preliminaries The job of The degree of semantics Referential non-compositionality varies theories Conceptual In quite a few cases (with semantics Some core historical knowledge) we problems can understand the Lexical analysis motivation of idioms Sense and word relations kick the bucket Approaches to lexical analysis let one’s hair down Componential analysis drop the ball Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Ambiguity and vagueness Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Vagueness: context adds information that is not specified The job of by the sense semantics Referential Ambiguity: context biases the sense selection of one of theories Conceptual several distinct senses semantics Some core do so (He caught a mole in his garden and I did so, too. problems Lexical He’ll be tried for espionage soon.) analysis Zeugma Sense and word relations substitutions with sense related items Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Outline Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries 1 Preliminaries The job of semantics The job of semantics 2 Referential theories Conceptual semantics Some core Lexical analysis 3 problems Lexical analysis Sense and word Exercises 4 relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Polysemy v. monosemy Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Does a word have more than one meaning? Are two particular Preliminaries uses covered by the same word sense? The job of Zeugma test semantics Referential theories #I didn’t buy his car or his argument. Conceptual semantics # I know the answer and a guy who can help you. Some core problems Stability in translation across multiple languages Lexical analysis Bank/Banken - banque - bank money Sense and word Bank/B¨ anke - banc - bench relations Approaches to lexical analysis (Fluss)Ufer - berges/rive de la rivi` ere - (river) bank Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Polysemy v. homonymy Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, Polysemy: related senses of the same phonological word A. Palmer Even our recent move to more comfortable Asuncion Preliminaries hadn’t really changed that situation (relocation) The job of semantics Yet one should not forget that the real motive behind the Referential government’s move was to abide by international laws and theories Conceptual regulations (step, measure, action) semantics Some core problems Homonymy: unrelated senses of the same phonological Lexical word analysis Sense and word relations Sometimes homonyms are distinguished from homographs Approaches to lexical analysis Homonyms: talk - torque (or: to/too/two) Componential analysis Homographs: ear (of corn) - ear (body part) Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Semantic and lexical relations Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries synonymy The job of semantics hyponymy/troponymy Referential theories Conceptual meronymy/scripts semantics Some core problems causative/inchoative/stative Lexical analysis antonyms Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Synonymy Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Extensionally and intensionally equivalent Paraphrases Preliminaries The job of tap , faucet semantics Referential theories Conceptual semantics Some core problems Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Is-a: Hyponymy/hypernymy Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of semantics Referential dog is a hyponym of animal theories Conceptual semantics animal is a hypernym of dog Some core problems Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Troponymy Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Loosely speaking, this is hyponymy for verbs The job of The relation between two verbs where one conveys a semantics Referential meaning which is a particular case of the meaning of the theories Conceptual other. For example, to amble is a troponym of to move ; semantics Some core problems to write is a troponym of to communicate , etc. Lexical analysis Troponym hierarchies usually aren’t as deep as Sense and word relations hyponym/hypernym hierarchies. Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Opposites I: Complementaries Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Complementaries exhaustively divide a conceptual domain Preliminaries The job of into two mutually exclusive compartments semantics Referential if one does not hold, the other must theories Conceptual true/false semantics Some core open/shut problems dead/alive Lexical analysis pass/fail [exam] Sense and word relations hit/miss [target] Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Opposites I: Complementaries, continued Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, Complementary predicates (true/false) give rise to A. Palmer predications that are Contradictions (That is true/false) Preliminaries They are mostly verbs and adjectives The job of semantics Verbal complementaries often have a joint relation to a Referential theories third presupposed predicate Conceptual semantics Reversive: be born → live v. die; start → keep on v. stop Some core problems Interactives: command → obey v. disobey; request → Lexical grant v. refuse analysis Sense and word Satisfactives: aim → hit v. miss; compete → win v. lose relations Approaches to Counteractives: attack → defend v. submit; charge → lexical analysis Componential refute v. admit analysis Cognitive semantics Adjectival complementaries are usually not gradable Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Opposites II: Antonyms Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Gradable antonyms: rich v. poor; fast v. slow Preliminaries mostly adjectives The job of semantics domain not strictly bisected, intermediate terms (e.g. Referential theories neither long nor short) Conceptual semantics middle of region/default value usually is not lexicalized Some core problems (e.g. average length) Lexical degrees of some variable property (from 0 to ∞ ) analysis terms relative to type of entity (small for an elephant >> Sense and word relations Approaches to large for an ant) lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Opposites III: sub-types of antonyms Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Important distinction: comparatives v. pseudo-comparatives Preliminaries Pseudo-comparatives The job of semantics This box is heavy. Referential theories This box is heavier than that one. Conceptual ?This box is light but it’s heavy. semantics Some core This box is light but it’s heavier than that one. problems Lexical True Comparatives analysis It’s hot today. Sense and word relations It’s hotter today than yesterday. Approaches to lexical analysis ?It’s cold today but it’s hot. Componential analysis ?It’s cold today but it’s hotter than yesterday. Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Opposites IV: sub-types of antonyms Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, Polar antonyms: each member of the opposition has a A. Palmer pseudo-comparative Preliminaries It’s short but it’s longer than that one. The job of It’s long but it’s shorter than that one. semantics Referential Overlapping antonyms: one member has a theories Conceptual pseudo-comparative, the other a true comparative semantics Some core problems ?John’s a good kid, but he is worse than Bill. Lexical John’s a bad kid, but he is better than Bill. analysis Sense and word Equipollent antonyms: both members have a true relations Approaches to comparative lexical analysis Componential ?It’s hot but it’s colder than yesterday. analysis Cognitive ?It’s cold but it’s hotter than yesterday. semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Opposites V: directional antonyms Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries antipodals (zenith, nadir; attic, cellar) The job of counterparts (ridge, groove; hill, valley) semantics Referential reversives/reverses theories Conceptual semantics rise, fall; ascend, descend; expand/contract Some core problems tie/untie; fill/empty; appear/disappear Lexical analysis converses/viewpoint alternatives (belong to v. own; Sense and word relations employer v. employee) Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Excursus: WordNet Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Lexical resource created at Princeton University Organizes English vocabulary in syn(onym)sets and Preliminaries connects these sets via various types of relations The job of semantics Referential Very widely used in computational linguistics/NLP theories Conceptual semantics $ wn bachelor -synsn Some core Synonyms/Hypernyms (Ordered by Estimated Frequency) of noun bachelor problems 2 senses of bachelor Sense 1 Lexical bachelor, unmarried man analysis = > man, adult male Sense and word relations Sense 2 Approaches to lexical analysis Componential knight bachelor, bachelor-at-arms, bachelor analysis Cognitive = > knight semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Causative - inchoative -stative Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of semantics x CAUSE y to BECOME z Referential theories kill.v - die.v - dead.a Conceptual semantics dry.v - dry.v - dry.a/dried.a Some core problems moisten.v - moisten.v - moist.a Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Meronymy Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of semantics Meronym (Part) - Holonym (Whole) Referential theories toe - foot Conceptual semantics tire - car Some core problems lens - glasses Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Meronymy II Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Test for meronymy: an x is a part of a y; a y has x/ xes. The job of Physical objects & regions in physical space: the part semantics Referential whole relationship is very clearly transitive: if x is part of theories Conceptual y, and y is part of z, then x is part of z. semantics Some core problems Most discussions of meronyms are restricted to examples Lexical analysis of Ns denoting physical objects. Can other parts of speech Sense and word relations stand in a part - whole relationship? Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Member - Aggregate pairs Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of fish - shoal semantics Referential sheep - flock theories Conceptual semantics worshipper - congregation Some core problems ship - fleet Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Portion/Unit extractors Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of head of cattle semantics Referential lump of coal theories Conceptual semantics strand of hair Some core problems spot of tea/coffee/wine Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Derivational relations Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of -er/-or (agent-like participant): observer, rider, negotiator semantics Referential -ee (undergoer-like participant): employee, signee theories Conceptual semantics observe watch - observation, observatory Some core problems observe comply/adhere - observance Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Encoding v. decoding Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Encoding: start with concepts or things and asks how Preliminaries people talk about them ( onomasiology ) The job of semantics Decoding: start with words and looks for their meanings Referential theories ( semasiology ) Conceptual semantics Some core Dictionaries traditionally take the decoding view problems Lexical In theory , doing a full lexical analysis from an encoding analysis Sense and word point view should lead to the same result as doing it from relations Approaches to a decoding point of view lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Meaning components Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Based on the observation that lexical relations hold The job of between lexical items, hypothesis that there are smaller semantics Referential components that make up word meanings theories Conceptual woman female adult human semantics Some core problems bachelor male adult human unmarried Lexical spinster female adult human unmarried analysis Sense and word wife female adult human married relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Uses of meaning components Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of Modeling meaning relations (Katz) semantics Referential theories Relation to syntactic and morphological processes (see Conceptual semantics below, Levin) Some core problems View on human conceptual structure (Jackendoff) Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Modeling lexical relations with meaning components Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of Spinster is a hyponym of woman semantics Referential theories A lexical item P can be defined as a hyponym of Q if all Conceptual semantics the features of Q are contained in the feature specification Some core problems of P Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Katzian decomposition Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Assumptions Preliminaries The job of recursive semantic rules semantics semantic compositionality Referential theories Semantics works as follows Conceptual semantics Some core give specifications of meanings of lexical items problems give rules showing how the meanings of lexical items Lexical analysis combine into larger and larger units Sense and word relations do this a universally applicable metalanguage Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Katzian decomposition II Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Dictionary The job of bachelor N semantics a (human) (male) [one who has never been married] Referential theories b (human) (male) [young knight serving under the standard Conceptual semantics of another knight] Some core problems c (human) [one who has the first or lowest academic degree] Lexical analysis d (animal) (male) [young fur seal without a mate in the Sense and word breeding season] relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Katzian decomposition III Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Projection rules: how to combine meanings Preliminaries we amalgamate lexical entries moving up the tree The job of main constraint on the amalgamation are selectional semantics Referential restrictions theories Conceptual colourful ADJ semantics Some core a (colour) [abounding in contrast or variety of bright colors] problems < (physical object) or (social activity) > Lexical analysis b (evaluative) [having distinctive character, vivideness, or Sense and word picturesequeness] relations Approaches to < (aeshtetic object) or (social activity) > lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Cognitive semantics Semantics key assumption: there is no separation of linguistic J. Ruppenhofer, knowledge from general thinking or cognition A. Palmer cognitive semantics is aligned with functional linguistics, in Preliminaries distinction to formal syntax/semantics where The job of language is seen as an autonomous cognitive faculty, semantics Referential encapsulated from other cognitive abilities theories Conceptual and distinct levels of linguistic analysis are also assumed to semantics Some core be encapsulated (e.g. autonomy of syntax) problems Lexical as a consequence, in cognitive semantics meaning is more analysis encyclopaedic Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis no strict semantics-pragmatics division Componential analysis different units of analysis: syntax has meaning Cognitive semantics Formal interest in grammaticalization (how grammatical items approaches Syntax - such as auxiliaries develop) Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Cognitive semantics II Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer denies tenets of objectivist semantics Preliminaries that meaning is based on truth and reference The job of that truth consists in the correspondence between symbols semantics Referential and states of affairs in the world theories Conceptual that there is an objectively correct way to associate semantics Some core symbols with things in the world problems Lexical holds that we have no access to reality independently of analysis Sense and word human categorization and that the structure of reality as relations Approaches to reflected in language is a product of the mind lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Central topics of cognitive semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of metaphor, metonymy semantics Referential image schemas theories Conceptual semantics mental spaces Some core problems perspective, viewpoint, focus, figure/ground Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Example: Active zones Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer If an entity participates in a situation, often certain parts Preliminaries of it are more involved in it than others. The job of semantics There are some clear cases where there is no active zone: Referential theories The Earth moves around the Sun . Conceptual semantics But in most others, a closer look reveals that an Some core problems understanding of an active zone is needed Lexical analysis cigarette in mouth Sense and word relations brush in glass jar Approaches to lexical analysis beer in the fridge Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Active zones II Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of semantics Referential theories Conceptual semantics Some core problems Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Generative lexicon I Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Observation: contrastive v. complementary ambiguity The job of semantics I walked along the bank of the river —Bill robbed a bank . Referential theories (Contrastive ambiguity) Conceptual semantics Mary had a little lamb —I don’t eat lamb Some core problems John crawled through the window —The window is closed Lexical I painted the door —Sue came through the door analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Generative lexicon II Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Constitutive role: what the entity is made of The job of semantics Formal role: factors pertaining to the entity’s perceptual Referential theories identification (shape, size, etc.) Conceptual semantics Some core Telic role: purpose of the entity problems Lexical Agentive role: how was the entity created, or what analysis brought it about Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Generative lexicon III Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of novel semantics Referential I burnt that novel. theories Conceptual Bill read the novel in one sitting. semantics Some core Miller wrote the novel in 1987. problems That novel is so fat that I can use it as a door stop. Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Generative lexicon IV Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer the four roles are not always equally important ( toy mostly Preliminaries telic) The job of semantics not readily applied to natural kinds: what is the agentive Referential theories role of hydrogen ? Conceptual semantics Some core some aspects of entities are not readily subsumed by the problems Lexical four roles (safe beach ) analysis Sense and word even some of the canonical four roles do not always seem relations Approaches to to be filled (good mountain [to climb]) lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Syntax-semantics relationship Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer How tight is it? What can you learn/infer from the one Preliminaries about the other? The job of semantics Distributional hypothesis (“You shall know a word by the Referential theories company it keeps” Firth 1957) Conceptual semantics if words occur with similar words in a window of context, Some core problems they are likely to share some meaning Lexical if words occur in the same kind of syntactic contexts, they analysis Sense and word are likely to share some meaning relations Approaches to lexical analysis Clustering of verbs into groups (syntax → semantics) Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Levin’s verb classes Example: touch - hit - break - cut Semantics cut-verbs: chip, clip, cut, hack, hew, saw, scape, scratch, J. Ruppenhofer, slash, snip A. Palmer This set of verbs is grouped because its members Preliminaries participate in particular syntactic alternations Carol cut the bread —Carol cut at the bread (Conative The job of semantics alternation) Referential theories Carol cut the bread —*The bread cut. Conceptual (Causative/inchoative alternation) semantics Some core Carol broke the twig —*Carol broke at the twig (Conative problems alternation) Lexical analysis Carol broke the twig —The twig broke Sense and word relations (Causative/inchoative alternation) Approaches to lexical analysis “The lexical knowledge of a speaker of a language must Componential analysis include knowledge of the meaning of individual verbs, the Cognitive semantics meaning components that determine the syntactic Formal approaches Syntax - behavior of verbs, and the general principles that Semantics Participants determine behavior from verb meaning.” (Levin 1993:11) Frame Semantics Event structure
Meaning beyond single words: Multi-word expressions Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Idioms : (kick the bucket; by and large) The job of semantics Referential Named entities : Coca cola; die S¨ uddeutsche Zeitung; theories Conceptual Agence France Presse semantics Some core problems Support constructions : verbs or prepositions that are Lexical selected by nouns which carry the semantic weight analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Support constructions Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Support: the governed, not the governor is the semantic Preliminaries heavyweight The job of semantics a Please extend my thanks to your family. Referential b The chancellor will make an announcement tonight. theories Conceptual c The mayor gave a speech at the opening ceremony. semantics Some core problems d The house was on fire . Lexical e The painting is in possession of the museum. analysis Sense and word Test: what is e.g. sentence (a) about, extending or relations Approaches to thanking? lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Meaning beyond words Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Sentence structures have meaning as well The job of Why paint your house purple? semantics Referential What’s that scratch doing on the table? theories Conceptual Him a doctor? semantics Some core problems the core grammar of English doesn’t generate these and/or Lexical these items have a conventional interpretation that cannot analysis Sense and word be derived relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Thematic roles, semantic roles Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer What are the roles of the entities in the situation being Preliminaries discussed? The job of semantics Agent, Patient, Location, Source, Path, Goal, Instrument, Referential theories Location, Beneficiary Conceptual semantics [Sue Agent ] hit [Fred Patient ] Some core problems [Bill Agent ] put [the book Patient ] [on the table Goal ] Lexical analysis Predicates, esp. Verbs, and Thematic role grids Sense and word relations Linking of Thematic roles and Grammatical roles Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Problems with roles Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Distinguishing roles The job of semantics The roles don’t all co-occur, so a flat list is misleading Referential theories How many roles do you need, how far do you need to Conceptual semantics stretch definitions? Some core problems Your car is similar to mine in color. Lexical analysis We overestimated the cost by 20%. Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Entailment-based role definition Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of Proto-agent semantics Referential volitional involvement in the event or state theories Conceptual sentience (and/or perception) semantics Some core causing an event or change of state in another participant problems movement relative to another participant Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Entailment-based role definition II Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of Proto-patient semantics Referential undergoes change of state theories Conceptual incremental theme semantics Some core causally affected by another participant problems stationary relative to movement of another participant Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Linking thematic roles to grammatical functions Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer In sentences with Subject and Object, link participant with Preliminaries most proto-agent properties to Subject The job of In sentences with Subject and Object, link participant with semantics Referential most proto-patient properties to Object theories Conceptual semantics If more than one participant qualifies as Subject/Object, Some core problems then it will be possible to use either as Subject/Object Lexical analysis Non-discreteness: proto-roles do not classify arguments of Sense and word relations a verb exhaustively; a given participant can have both Approaches to lexical analysis Componential proto-agent and proto-patient properties analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Semantics of understanding: what does a speaker have to The job of know to use an expression competently? semantics Referential Concepts analyzed as profiles viewed against a theories Conceptual Base/Domain semantics Some core problems Similarity to scripts in AI (Schank and Abelson) Lexical analysis FrameNet: a computational lexicography project based on Sense and word relations frame semantics Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of How many senses of tall and low do you need to talk semantics about these examples? Referential theories Conceptual semantics tall - short person Some core problems tall - low building Lexical high - low branch analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of How many senses of tall and low do you need to talk semantics about these examples? Referential theories Conceptual semantics tall - short person (extension from ground) Some core problems tall - low building (extension from ground) Lexical high - low branch (distance to ground) analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries hypothenuse, radius The job of semantics Referential theories Conceptual semantics Some core problems Lexical analysis vegetarian, bachelor Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer My dad wasted most of the morning on the bus. Preliminaries The job of semantics Referential theories Conceptual semantics Some core problems Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer My dad wasted most of the morning on the bus. Preliminaries The job of My father wasted most of the morning on the bus. semantics Referential (strictly kinship) theories Conceptual semantics Some core problems Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer My dad wasted most of the morning on the bus. Preliminaries The job of My father wasted most of the morning on the bus. semantics Referential (strictly kinship) theories Conceptual semantics My dad spent most of the morning on the bus. (neutral Some core problems attitude) Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer My dad wasted most of the morning on the bus. Preliminaries The job of My father wasted most of the morning on the bus. semantics Referential (strictly kinship) theories Conceptual semantics My dad spent most of the morning on the bus. (neutral Some core problems attitude) Lexical analysis My dad wasted most of the morning in the bus. (bus is Sense and word relations stationary) Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of During World War I, Ronald Reagan’s birth mother semantics Referential theories dropped his analog watch into the sound hole of the Conceptual semantics acoustic guitar. Some core problems What makes this sentence odd? Lexical analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries The job of During World War I, Ronald Reagan’s birth mother semantics dropped his analog watch into the sound hole of the Referential theories Conceptual acoustic guitar. semantics Some core What makes this sentence odd? problems Lexical fertility treatments are not available analysis Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries During World War I, Ronald Reagan’s birth mother The job of semantics dropped his analog watch into the sound hole of the Referential theories acoustic guitar. Conceptual semantics What makes this sentence odd? Some core problems fertility treatments are not available Lexical analysis there are no digital watches Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries During World War I, Ronald Reagan’s birth mother The job of dropped his analog watch into the sound hole of the semantics Referential acoustic guitar. theories Conceptual semantics What makes this sentence odd? Some core problems fertility treatments are not available Lexical there are no digital watches analysis Sense and word there are no electric guitars relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
Frame Semantics Semantics J. Ruppenhofer, A. Palmer Preliminaries Coot is the name of a bird that spends very little of its The job of time { on land/on the ground } semantics Referential theories Land/Sea Conceptual semantics Ground/Air Some core problems My uncle likes to eat { roe/caviar } . Lexical analysis The rest of my family do eat { flesh/meat } . Sense and word relations Approaches to lexical analysis Componential analysis Cognitive semantics Formal approaches Syntax - Semantics Participants Frame Semantics Event structure
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