Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Predication and NP Structure in an Michael Hahn University of Omnipredicative Language: The Case of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- Khoekhoe tuebingen.de Data Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Michael Hahn Free Relative Clauses Negation University of T¨ ubingen Word Order Complex Nominal mhahn@sfs.uni-tuebingen.de Predicates Analysis Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers Conclusion Workshop on Understudied Languages and Syntactic References Theory 2014 1 / 41
Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Data Case of Khoekhoe Omnipredicativity Michael Hahn University of Khoekhoe T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- Free Relative Clauses tuebingen.de Negation Data Word Order Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Complex Nominal Predicates Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Analysis Predicates Analysis Lexical Predicates Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Relative Clauses Other Modifiers Other Modifiers Conclusion References Conclusion 2 / 41
Predication and Omnipredicativity (Launey 1994, 2002) NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen ◮ members of all major open word classes can function mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de equally and without derivation as predicates Data ◮ predicative use is primary Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe ◮ referential use is derived syntactically by relativization Free Relative Clauses Negation ◮ different from the lack of word classes: in Classical Word Order Complex Nominal Nahuatl, ... Predicates ◮ nouns and verbs clearly distinguished by their Analysis Lexical Predicates morphological properties Relative Clauses Other Modifiers ◮ on the syntactic level, nouns and verbs can both be Conclusion used predicatively and referentially in the same ways References 3 / 41
Predication and Khoekhoe(gowab) NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of ◮ Central Khoisan language spoken in Namibia and South T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- Africa tuebingen.de ◮ three open word classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives Data ◮ distinguished by... Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe 1. derivation morphemes applicable to them Free Relative Clauses Negation ◮ verbs and adjectives: valencey-changing suffixes Word Order Complex Nominal ◮ nouns: diminutives Predicates Analysis 2. nouns have inherent gender Lexical Predicates 3. adjectives and nouns have a fixed order within NPs: Relative Clauses Other Modifiers adjectives can modify nouns, Conclusion but not the other way around References ◮ but striking similarities in their syntax 4 / 41
Predication and Predication in Khoekhoe NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe ◮ SOV language Michael Hahn University of ◮ V slot: any of the three open word classes T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- ◮ only the possible TAM markers vary with the predicate tuebingen.de ◮ verbs Data Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe (1) saa=ts ge ra | khii Free Relative Clauses Negation you= 2ms come decl tam Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates “You are coming.” Analysis Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses ◮ adjectives Other Modifiers Conclusion (2) om=s ge a kai References house= 3fs big decl tam “The house is big.” 5 / 41
Predication and Predication in Khoekhoe II NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of ◮ nouns T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de (3) saa=ts ge a gao-ao Data you= 2ms king decl tam Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe “You are a king.” Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates ◮ proper names Analysis Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses (4) saa=ts ge a Petru Other Modifiers you= 2ms Peter decl tam Conclusion References “You are Peter.” 6 / 41
Predication and Predication in Khoekhoe III NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of ◮ deictics T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de (5) om=s ge a nee Data house= 3fs this decl tam Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe “The house is this one.” Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal ◮ pronominal elements Predicates Analysis Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses (6) tii=ta ge a saa Other Modifiers I=1s you decl tam Conclusion References “I am you.” 7 / 41
Predication and Predicative vs. Argument NPs NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn ◮ argument NPs generally end with a University of T¨ ubingen person-gender-number (PGN) morpheme mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de ◮ not found when the noun is the predicate Data Omnipredicativity (7) a. [gao-ao=b] ge ra | khii Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses king= 3ms come decl tam Negation Word Order “The king is coming.” Complex Nominal Predicates Analysis b. tii=ta ge [gao-ao=b] !oa ra mˆ ıˆ ı Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses 1s = 1s king= 3ms to speak decl tam Other Modifiers Conclusion “I am speaking to the king.” References ⇒ predicative nouns are not simply NPs without a copula 8 / 41
Predication and The Omnipredicative Hypothesis NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen Hypothesis : mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de ◮ Khoekhoe is omnipredicative ◮ nouns are primarily genuine predicates, like verbs Data Omnipredicativity ◮ argument NPs are free relative clauses Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Empirical expectations : Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates 1. nonverbal predicates should show the full spectrum of Analysis behaviour of predicates Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers 2. argument NPs should be syntactically indistinguishable Conclusion from free relative clauses References 9 / 41
Predication and Free Relative Clauses NP Structure in an Omnipredicative ◮ general structure: Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn clause with gap/resumptive + PGN marker University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de ◮ subject extraction Data (8) saa=ts ge [ | khii ra]=b !oa ra mˆ ıˆ ı Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe you= 2ms come tam = 3ms to speak decl tam Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order ‘you are speaking to the one (m.) who is coming’ Complex Nominal Predicates Analysis ◮ complement extraction Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers (9) [Petru=b go mˆ uˆ u]=s ge go | khii Conclusion Petrs= 3ms see= 3fs come tam decl tam References ‘the one (f.) Peter saw has come’ ◮ this looks very similar to argument NPs with noun head ◮ but there is an additional TAM marker... 10 / 41
Predication and Free Relative Clauses NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of ◮ ...but this just reflects a usage preference T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de (10) a. [gao-ao a]=b king tam = 3ms Data Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe ‘the king’ Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order b. saa=ts ge | khii Complex Nominal Predicates you= 2ms decl come Analysis Lexical Predicates ‘you come’ Relative Clauses Other Modifiers Conclusion ◮ these options are grammatical but dispreferred, possibly References because nouns generally denote permanent properties 11 / 41
Predication and Free Relative Clauses NP Structure in an Omnipredicative ◮ all predicates can be used in ‘free relatives’ Language: The Case of Khoekhoe ◮ nouns, verbs: see above Michael Hahn University of ◮ adjectives T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- (11) kai (a)=n ge go | khii tuebingen.de big tam = 3p come decl tam Data ‘the big ones have come’ Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses ◮ deictics Negation Word Order Complex Nominal (12) || naa (a)=n ge go | khii Predicates those tam = 3p come decl tam Analysis Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses ‘those ones have come’ Other Modifiers Conclusion ◮ pronominal elements ⇒ ‘pronouns’ [Haacke, 1977] References (13) saa (a)=ts ge go | khii you tam = 2ms come decl tam ‘you have come’ ⇒ second expectation might be met 12 / 41
Predication and Negation NP Structure in an Omnipredicative ◮ nouns in NPs can be negated, just like predicates Language: The Case of Khoekhoe ◮ predicative noun Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen (14) || ˆ ıˆ ı=b ge a Petru tama mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de 3s = 3ms Peter decl tam neg Data ‘He is not Peter.’ Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses ◮ argument NP headed by noun Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates (15) Petru tama=b Analysis Peter neg = 3ms Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses ‘the one who is not Peter’ Other Modifiers Conclusion ◮ the same negation marker is used for all other predicates References (16) tii=ta ge � =gae tama 1s = 1s smoke decl neg ‘I do not smoke.’ 13 / 41
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