Life Support 1 System Life Support Systems during Space Missions The Human Perspective Jeff Williams works on the CO 2 removal system on board the ISS. Photo NASA International Space Gilles Clément University Strasbourg, France Wyle Laboratories & NASA Doug Hamilton Johnson Space Center Houston, USA
Life Support Lecture Outline 2 System Apollo-11 crew in post-flight quarantine • Human body needs • Methods for life support systems : "Open-loop" vs. "Closed-loop" • Guide for life support systems design • Ecological (Regenerative) life support system • Terraforming Bob Thirsk cleaning air filters on board the ISS
Life Support Definitions 3 System • NASA – ECLSS = Environmental Control and Life Support System – ECLSS is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive during a space mission • Scientific – CELSS = Controlled (or Closed) Ecological Life Support Systems – CELSS are a type of scientific endeavor to create a self-supporting life support system • In this lecture – LSS = Life Support System
Life Support Biological Systems are Complex 4 System • Biosphere 2 was a test site for prototyping sealed (closed) life support systems to better model how Earth ʼ s ecosystems actually work • As a large glass building resembling a giant terrarium in the Arizona desert, this system had severe problems maintaining the atmosphere levels and food required for a 8-person crew
Life Support Environment Components 5 System • The Earth ʼ s atmosphere is made up of: – 78% Nitrogen (N 2 ) – 21% Oxygen (O 2 ) – 0.5% Water vapor – Along with very small amounts of Argon, CO 2 , Neon, Helium, Krypton, Xenon, Hydrogen, Methane, and other trace gases • We depend on the correct mixture of gases in the atmosphere to sustain our lives • We also depend of the pressure of our atmosphere to be able to breathe. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is: 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 101.1 kPa = 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi) • Space travelers must carry their own pressurized atmosphere with the correct mixture of gas
Life Support Cabin Atmosphere 6 System pO 2 • Trade-Offs Total (partial pressure – Atmospheric pressure, O 2 , CO 2 , etc. pressure) – Cabin atmosphere vs. EVA – Safe, clean air vs. contaminants % O 2 • Cabin—Total pressure and pO 2 – Mercury, Gemini, and early Apollo: 5 psi, 100% O 2 (pO 2 = 260 mmHg); pre-breathed O 2 for 3 hrs prior to launch – Skylab: 5 psi, 70% O 2 (pO 2 =180 mmHg) – Space Shuttle: sea-level = 14.7 psi, 21% O 2 (pO 2 =162 mmHg) – Mir/ISS: sea-level = 14.7 psi (1 atm or 760 mmHg), 21% O 2 • Degraded Conditions or Emergencies Operational 90-day 28-day Pressure 760 ± 10 mmHg same same O 2 146-173 mmHg 124-178 119-178 CO 2 3 mmHg max 7.6 max 12 max Humidity 25-70% 25-75% 25-75%
Life Support Lack of Oxygen (Hypoxia) 7 System • The human body is a heat engine that consumes the fuels of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from food by the chemical process of oxidation, which requires the presence of Oxygen • Symptoms of lack of Oxygen , or hypoxia, are: – Incapability to exercise judgment by comparing and analyzing alternatives – Inability to integrate different sensory inputs, resulting in decrement in motor control and coordination – Memory troubles – Degradation of peripheral and central vision (undetected) – Feelings of well-being, drowsiness, nonchalance, and a false sense of security (the last thing a person believes to be necessary is additional oxygen)
Life Support CO 2 Retention (Hypercapnia) 8 System • CO 2 is a result of the breakdown of glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) during the aerobic cell respiration process • Excess of CO 2 (Hypercapnia) is caused by exposure to environments containing abnormally high concentrations of carbon dioxide, or by rebreathing exhaled carbon dioxide. • Symptoms of hypercapnia include: – Headache – Confusion – Drowsiness – Elevation in arterial blood pressure – Cardiac arrhythmias – Disorientation – Panic
Life Support Nitrogen and "the Bends" 9 System • Although Nitrogen makes up more than 70% of the normal atmosphere, too much or too little Nitrogen causes trouble • When the body is subjected to a sudden loss of pressure (divers, aviators) nitrogen dissolved in the blood and tissues can come out of solution and form tiny bubbles • The Nitrogen gas bubbles tend to congregate in the arm and leg joints where their presence creates pain (" the bends ") • Space suits operate at a pressure of 5 psi while the spacecraft are at 14.7 psi. Bends are possible in case of rapid decompression • Before EVA , astronauts spend 3 hours breathing pure Oxygen to flush all of the Nitrogen from their bodies (less if they exercise) Space Shuttle airlock
Life Support Spacecraft Environment 10 System • Because spacecrafts are completely closed environments, CO 2 must be actively removed from the atmosphere. High CO 2 levels increase heart rate and respiration rate and cause problems with the acid-base balance of the body. CO 2 level should be lower than 0.3 % (3 mmHg) • High humidity can promote the rapid growth of microbes or fungus. Low humidity can cause drying of the eyes and skin and the mucous membranes of the nose and throat, thus providing less protection against respiratory infections. Water vapor pressure should range from 0.12-0.27 psi (0.01 atm) • Temperature is an important aspect of the body heat balance. Temperature should range from 18-27°C (64-81°F)
Life Support Loss of Pressure 11 System • Due to collision with debris or mechanical systems failure • Response time depends on rate of pressure loss: – Size of breach, initial module pressure/volume, ability of environmental control system to compensate • Access to emergency breathing equipment • Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC) Pressure Equivalent TUC (kPa) Altitude (m) 50.8 5486 20-30 min 42.7 6706 10 min 37.3 7620 3-5 min 32 8534 2.5-3 min 30.1 9144 1-2 min 23.7 10668 0.5-1 min 18.8 12192 15-20 sec 15.9 13106 12-15 sec 11.6 15240 9-12 sec
Life Support Human Body Needs 12 System One day One year % of total mass (per person) (per person) Inputs Oxygen 0.83 kg 303 kg 2.7 % 4x Food 0.62 kg 226 kg 2.0 % 3x Potable Water 3.56 kg 1300 kg 11.4 % 17x (drink and food prep.) Hygiene Water 26.0 kg 9490 kg 83.9 % 126x (hygiene, flush, laundry, dishes) Total 31.0 kg ≈ 11400 kg 100 % 75 kg Outputs Carbon dioxide 1.0 kg 363 kg 3.2 % Metabolic solids 0.1 kg 36 kg 0.3 % Water 30.0 kg 10950 kg 96.5% (metabolic / urine 12.3%) (hygiene / flush 24.7%) (laundry / dish 55.7%) (latent 3.6%) Total 31.0 kg ≈ 11400 kg 100 %
Life Support Human Needs re-Temperature 13 System • Human food, oxygen, and water needs vary as a function of temperature • Classical triad of lethal "Heat Stroke" – Core temperature greater than 40.5°C (104.9°K) – Disorder of central nervous system (brain stem) – Lack of sweating
Life Support Contaminants — Sources 14 System • Early examples – Apollo 1 (1967) — Fire – Apollo 10 (1969) — Fiberglass insulation – Apollo 13 (1970) — CO 2 build-up – Apollo 18 (1975) — Propellants on reentry entered via vents – Soyuz 21 - Salyut 5 (1976) — Acrid odor – Soyuz 24 - Salyut 5 (1977) — Flushed air before entry • Space Shuttle – Eye irritation from LiOH canisters and payload chemicals – Waste system release of “brown dust” – Formaldehyde and Ammonia from overheated refrigerator motor • Mir – O 2 , CO 2 , ethylene glycol, fumes / fires Changing CO2 canisters on board the Space Shuttle
Life Support Contaminants — Issues 15 System • Chemical contamination – Can be brought in from outside the spacecraft, e.g. propellants & Freon 21 following an EVA – Can come from inside, e.g. dust mites, protozoa, fungi (bacteria not contaminants) • Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations (SMACs) – Low toxic effects, acceptable, e.g. slight irritation, mild headache, etc. – Medium toxic effects, unacceptable, e.g. blindness, disability, anesthesia, etc – Lifetime risk < 0.01% / mission • Monitoring – Shuttle monitored after each mission (gas chromatography / mass spectrometry) On-board microbio analysis – ISS – weekly on-orbit, real-time monitoring
Life Support Fire / Explosion 16 System • Considerations – Electrical systems serve as potential ignition sources – Inadequate gas mixing may lead to pockets of enriched oxygen – Must prepare for direct injuries Flame forms a sphere in microgravity – Combustion events expected to produce toxic pyrolysis products – Toxicity of fire suppressants; ability of atmosphere control system to scrub • Countermeasures – Strategically placed emergency breathing gear – Emergency response protocol; plan for module isolation – Refuges: modules, suits, etc. – Medical treatment for thermal injuries
Life Support Major LSS Functions 17 System Space Shuttle galley • Atmosphere control – Gas storage, recovery and generation – CO 2 removal – Trace contaminant monitoring and removal • Temperature and humidity control – Cabin ventilation – Equipment cooling • Water and food management – Processing, storage and distribution – Microbial control • Waste management – Collection and storage of human waste – Trash • Crew safety – Fire detection and suppression – Radiation shielding Taking the trash out
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