Heads and complements Japanese (1) John-ga hon-o yon da John-SUBJ book-DO read PAST 'John has read the book'/'John read the book' (2) John-ga Mary-ni kono hon-o age ta John-SUBJ Mary-IO that book-DO give PAST 'John has given that book to Mary/John gave Mary that book' (3) Mary-ga kono Nihon kara-no kagaku no gakusei-o] home ta Mary-SUBJ this Japan from chemistry of student-DO praise PAST 'Mary praised this student of chemistry from Japan' (4) Mary-ga John-ga hon-o yon da to omottei ru Mary-SUBJ John-SUBJ book-DO read PAST that think PRESENT 'Mary thinks that John is reading the book' 61
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Heads and complements Linearization generalization: If X subcategorizes for Y, then X precedes Y in English and X follows Y in Japanese 65
Heads and complements • English is a uniformly head-first language. • Japanese is a uniformly head-last language. Where "head-first" means the head of the phrase precedes its sister (and conversely for "head-last"). 66
Heads and complements Recall: The relative order of a head and the element that it merges with varies systematically across languages: head-initial languages: In languages like English , a head of a phrase systematically precedes its sister (the element it merged with): head non-head " ...that Mary will read books " 67
Heads and complements head-final languages: In languages like Japanese , a head of a phrase systematically follows its sister (the element it merged with). non-head head books read head-last (Mary) [books read] will head-last (plus subject) (Mary) [books read will] that head-last " Sue [ Mary books read will that ] believes" 68
Heads and complements Certain kinds of mixed languages do exist... German (head-final V and T, head-initial C): books read head-last (Mary) [books read] will head-last (plus subject) that [(Mary) [books read will] head- first " ...that Mary books read will " Spoken Afrikaans (head-final V, head-initial T and C) books read head-last (Mary) will [books read] head- first (plus subject) that [(Mary) will books read] head- first " ...that Mary will books read " 69
Heads and complements Here are two other kinds of mixed languages: 70
Heads and complements Here are two other kinds of mixed languages: Literary Martian (head-initial V and T, head-final C) : read books head-first (Mary) will [read books] head-first (plus subject) (Mary) will read books] that head- last " ... Mary will read books that " Old High Venusian (head-initial V, head-final T and C) read books head-first (Mary) [read books] will head- last (plus subject) (Mary) [read books will] that head- last " ... Mary read books will that " 71
Heads and complements Here are two other kinds of mixed languages: Literary Martian (head-initial V and T, head-final C) : DOES NOT EXIST! read books head-first (Mary) will [read books] head-first (plus subject) (Mary) will read books] that head- last " ... Mary will read books that " Old High Venusian (head-initial V, head-final T and C) DOES NOT EXIST! read books head-first (Mary) [read books] will head- last (plus subject) (Mary) [read books will] that head- last " ... Mary read books will that " 72
Heads and complements ... as discovered by Anders Holmberg The "Final-over-Final Constraint" (FOFC) a universal property of languages! . Within a single clause or noun-phrase, if a phrase is head- initial, the phrase that immediately contains it must also be head-initial ... (...but if a phrase is head-final, the phrase that immediately contains it may be head-final or head-initial.) (Holmberg 2000; Biberauer, Holmberg & Roberts 2010) 73
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Heads and complements Terminology: • A phrase headed by X = a projection of X • A phrase headed by X that is immediately dominated by a projection of a different head = the maximal projection of X • Maximal projection sister of a lexical item X = the complement of X • Maximal projection daughter of the maximal projection of X (required as a special property of X) = the specifier of X 75
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Heads and complements Terminology: • A phrase headed by X = a projection of X • A phrase headed by X that is immediately dominated by a projection of a different head = the maximal projection of X • Maximal projection sister of a projecting lexical item X = the complement of X • Maximal projection daughter of the maximal projection of X (required as a special property of X) = the specifier of X 77
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Heads and complements Terminology: • A phrase headed by X = a projection of X • A phrase headed by X that is immediately dominated by a projection of a different head = the maximal projection of X • Non-projecting sister of a lexical item X = the complement of X • Non-projecting daughter of the maximal projection of X (required as a special property of X) = the specifier of X 80
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Heads and complements Notation: • Lexical head of X: Xº ("X-zero") • Maximal projection of X: XP • Intermediate projection of X: X' ("X-bar" (i.e. non-lexical, non-maximal) Things not to worry about: There is no need to draw non-branching nodes as the scanned textbook chapter does (e.g. a non-branching NP and non-branching N' dominating Mary ) If a node is both a maximal projection of X and a lexical item, label it XP rather than Xº — but this is just so your trees look like what syntacticians are used to. No other reason. 82
Structure constrains interpretation Coreference between pronouns and full NPs: (1) a. Hillary claims that she likes pizza. b. She claims that Hillary likes pizza. 83
Structure constrains interpretation Coreference between pronouns and full NPs: (1) a. Hillary i claims that she i likes pizza. b. *She i claims that Hillary i likes pizza. (2) a. [This new book about Hillary] claims that she likes pizza. b. [This new book about her] claims that Hillary likes pizza. 84
Structure constrains interpretation Coreference between pronouns and full NPs: (1) a. Hillary i claims that she i likes pizza. b. *She i claims that Hillary i likes pizza. (2) a. [This new book about Hillary i ]claims that she i likes pizza. b. [This new book about her i ] claims that Hillary i likes pizza. 85
Structure constrains interpretation Coreference between pronouns and full NPs: (1) a. Hillary i claims that she i likes pizza. b. *She i claims that Hillary i likes pizza. (2) a. [This new book about Hillary i ] claims that she i likes pizza. b. [This new book about her i ] claims that Hillary i likes pizza. (3) a. [Hillary's i enemies] claim that she i likes pizza. b. [Her i enemies] claim that Hillary i likes pizza. 86
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Structure constrains interpretation Principle C (relates syntax and semantics) If an pronoun NP x c-commands a full NP y , x and y may not be coreferent. Definition of c-command A node α c-commands a node β iff a. the mother of α dominates β , and b. α does not dominate β . 91
Structure constrains interpretation • node • immediately dominates • dominates • mother • daughter • sister • root node • terminal node • c-command 92
Structure constrains interpretation X-bar theory 93
Modifiers (1) a. a large small shirt b. a small large shirt (2) a. a shirt [that's large] [that's small] b. a shirt [that's small] [that's large] (2) a. a common wrong answer b. a wrong common answer 94
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