Gender inequality in India Seema Jayachandran Northwestern - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Gender inequality in India Seema Jayachandran Northwestern University February 12, 2019

Gender equality, economic development, & cultural norms 1 / 41

Gender gaps tend to be larger in poor countries Ratio of male to female tertiary enrollment rate R 2 =0.435 4 3 2 India China 1 0 1000 4000 16000 64000 GDP per capita (log scale) Americas Asia & Oceania Europe Middle East & N. Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Source: Jayachandran (2015) 2 / 41

Economic development and gender equality 3 / 41

Deep-rooted cultural norms matter too ◮ Some gender gaps aren’t narrowing with economic progress ◮ Example: Preference for having sons 4 / 41

Male-skewed sex ratio at birth R 2 =0.055 China 1.15 Male to female sex ratio at birth India 1.1 1.05 1 1000 4000 16000 64000 GDP per capita (log scale) Americas Asia & Oceania Europe Middle East & N. Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Source: Jayachandran (2015) 5 / 41

Desire for eldest son versus desire for sons in general ◮ Strong desire for an eldest son in India, not to have all sons ◮ Suggests that dowry is not driving sex selection 6 / 41

Cultural roots of eldest son preference Coresidence and the Sex Ratio of Children, IPUMS and DHS Samples 120 Azerbaijan 06 Armenia 10 Armenia 01 Sex Ratio of Children Vietnam 09 110 ◮ Patrilocality China 90 India 05 Turkey 00 Belarus 99 Turkey 03 Israel 95 India 04 Pakistan 98 Nepal 01 ◮ Patrilineality USA 05 Uganda 11 South Africa 07 100 Uzbekistan 02 Zimbabwe 10 Ghana 00 Mozambique 11 ◮ Religious rites Malawi 08 Malawi 10 90 0 .2 .4 .6 Fraction of Elderly Men Coresiding with Son Asia N. Africa/Middle East Sub-Saharan Africa South/Central America OECD IPUMS DHS  7 / 41

India’s other exceptionalism: Low female employment rate Source: The Economist (2018) 8 / 41

Consequences of the strong desire for an eldest son 9 / 41

Desire for sons versus more resources for sons ◮ Both types of favoritism for sons are seen in India ◮ Gender gap in children’s human capital is seen in most societies at low levels of development, but desire for sons isn’t ◮ India is more exceptional in its desire for sons 10 / 41

How desire for eldest son affects fertility choices After daughter’s birth, Have sex-selective try again for a son abortion 11 / 41

After daughter’s birth, try again for a son ◮ Affects spacing between births due to hurrying to have another child ◮ Family size is larger than originally planned → Negative consequences for child health 12 / 41

Girls are breastfed for a shorter duration than boys in India Source: Jayachandran and Kuziemko (2011) 13 / 41

After birth of girl, want to get pregnant quickly to try for a son ◮ Quicker next pregnancies after girls → Earlier weaning ◮ If know that breastfeeding lowers fecundity, will wean girl sooner ◮ Subsequent pregnancy is often what triggers weaning 14 / 41

After birth of girl, want to get pregnant quickly to try for a son ◮ Quicker next pregnancies after girls → Earlier weaning ◮ If know that breastfeeding lowers fecundity, will wean girl sooner ◮ Subsequent pregnancy is often what triggers weaning 14 / 41

Largest gender gap when family would have stopped having children, but for wanting more sons 15 / 41

Largest gender gap when family would have stopped having children, but for wanting more sons 20 Months breastfed (censored) 19.5 19 18.5 18 Male Female -2 -1 0 1 2 Distance from ideal family size (Birth order - ideal # of children) 15 / 41

Gender gap in breastfeeding peaks at typical completed family size 16 / 41

India’s height disadvantage is concentrated at higher birth order 17 / 41

India’s height disadvantage is concentrated at higher birth order − 1.2 Mean height-for-age z -score − 1.29 − 1.30 − 1.30 − 1.4 − 1.38 − 1.42 − 1.6 Africa India − 1.75 − 1.8 Birth order 3 + Birth order 1 Birth order 2 Source: Jayachandran and Pande (2017) 17 / 41

Eldest son preference → Child health inputs drop off with birth order ◮ Among boys, parents provide more resources to their eldest son than to his younger brothers ◮ What explains the birth order gradient among girls? ◮ Birth of a later-born girl prompts a couple to revise upward their intended family size ◮ Household income needs to be spread among more children, and newborn daughter bears the brunt of that 18 / 41

Eldest son preference → Child health inputs drop off with birth order ◮ Among boys, parents provide more resources to their eldest son than to his younger brothers ◮ What explains the birth order gradient among girls? ◮ Birth of a later-born girl prompts a couple to revise upward their intended family size ◮ Household income needs to be spread among more children, and newborn daughter bears the brunt of that 18 / 41

Eldest son preference → Child health inputs drop off with birth order ◮ Among boys, parents provide more resources to their eldest son than to his younger brothers ◮ What explains the birth order gradient among girls? ◮ Birth of a later-born girl prompts a couple to revise upward their intended family size ◮ Household income needs to be spread among more children, and newborn daughter bears the brunt of that 18 / 41

Eldest son preference → Child health inputs drop off with birth order ◮ Among boys, parents provide more resources to their eldest son than to his younger brothers ◮ What explains the birth order gradient among girls? ◮ Birth of a later-born girl prompts a couple to revise upward their intended family size ◮ Household income needs to be spread among more children, and newborn daughter bears the brunt of that 18 / 41

Who’s disadvantaged in India? Children other than eldest sons Panel A. Girls Panel B. Non-eldest sons Panel C. Eldest sons − 0.5 − 0.5 − 0.5 Mean height-for-age z -score − 1 − 1 − 1 KE & NE KE & NE IND KE & NE IND − 1.5 − 1.5 − 1.5 IND − 2 − 2 − 2 6 7 8 9 6 7 8 9 6 7 8 9 ln ( GDP per capita in birth year ) Source: Jayachandran and Pande (2017) 19 / 41

Desire for eldest son → Sex-selective abortions → Skewed sex ratio 1.18 1.15 Male to female sex ratio at birth 1.12 1.09 China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China 1.06 India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India India 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Source: World Bank 20 / 41

Desire for smaller families has increased sex-selection in India ◮ Family with 5 kids has 3% chance of all girls; with 2 kids, chance is 24% ◮ Greater “need” to sex-select as desired family size falls ◮ “Fertility Decline and Missing Women” (Jayachandran, 2017) elicits desired sex composition at a specified fertility level ◮ At family size of 1, almost everyone wants son; at family size ≥ 4, desired sex ratio is > 50% female ◮ Decline in desired family size explains an estimated 30-50% of India’s worsening sex ratio since 1980 21 / 41

Desire for smaller families has increased sex-selection in India ◮ Family with 5 kids has 3% chance of all girls; with 2 kids, chance is 24% ◮ Greater “need” to sex-select as desired family size falls ◮ “Fertility Decline and Missing Women” (Jayachandran, 2017) elicits desired sex composition at a specified fertility level ◮ At family size of 1, almost everyone wants son; at family size ≥ 4, desired sex ratio is > 50% female ◮ Decline in desired family size explains an estimated 30-50% of India’s worsening sex ratio since 1980 21 / 41

Desire for smaller families has increased sex-selection in India ◮ Family with 5 kids has 3% chance of all girls; with 2 kids, chance is 24% ◮ Greater “need” to sex-select as desired family size falls ◮ “Fertility Decline and Missing Women” (Jayachandran, 2017) elicits desired sex composition at a specified fertility level ◮ At family size of 1, almost everyone wants son; at family size ≥ 4, desired sex ratio is > 50% female ◮ Decline in desired family size explains an estimated 30-50% of India’s worsening sex ratio since 1980 21 / 41

Desire for smaller families has increased sex-selection in India ◮ Family with 5 kids has 3% chance of all girls; with 2 kids, chance is 24% ◮ Greater “need” to sex-select as desired family size falls ◮ “Fertility Decline and Missing Women” (Jayachandran, 2017) elicits desired sex composition at a specified fertility level ◮ At family size of 1, almost everyone wants son; at family size ≥ 4, desired sex ratio is > 50% female ◮ Decline in desired family size explains an estimated 30-50% of India’s worsening sex ratio since 1980 21 / 41