Chapter 9: Calibration of Photon and Electron Beams Set of 189 slides based on the chapter authored by P. Andreo, J.P. Seuntjens, and E.B. Podgorsak of the IAEA publication: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Objective: To familiarize the student with the basic principles of radiation dosimetry. Slide set prepared in 2006 by E.B. Podgorsak (Montreal, McGill University) Comments to S. Vatnitsky: dosimetry@iaea.org IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency CHAPTER 9. TABLE OF CONTENTS 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Ionization chamber based dosimetry 9.3. Corrections for influence quantities 9.4. Determination of dose using calibrated chambers 9.5. Stopping power ratios 9.6. Mass-energy absorption coefficient ratios 9.7. Perturbation correction factors 9.8. Beam quality specification 9.9. Calibration of MV photon and electron beams 9.10. Kilovoltage dosimetry 9.11. Error and uncertainties analysis IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.
9.1 INTRODUCTION � Modern radiotherapy relies on accurate dose delivery to the prescribed target volume. � ICRU recommends an overall accuracy in tumour dose ± delivery of 5%, based on: • An analysis of dose response data. • An evaluation of errors in dose delivery in a clinical setting. � Considering all uncertainties involved in the dose delivery ± to the patient, the 5% accuracy is by no means easy to attain. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1 Slide 1 9.1 INTRODUCTION � Accurate dose delivery to the target with external photon or electron beams is governed by a chain consisting of the following main links: • Basic output calibration of the beam • Procedures for measuring the relative dose data. • Equipment commissioning and quality assurance. • Treatment planning • Patient set-up on the treatment machine. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1 Slide 2
9.1 INTRODUCTION � The basic output for a clinical beam is usually stated as: • Dose rate for a point P in G/min or Gy/MU. • At a reference depth z ref (often the depth of dose maximum z max ). • In a water phantom for a nominal source to surface distance (SSD) or source to axis distance (SAD). • At a reference field size on the phantom surface or the isocentre (usually 10x10 cm 2 ). IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1 Slide 3 9.1 INTRODUCTION � Machine basic output is usually given in: • Gy/min for kilovoltage x-ray generators and teletherapy units. • Gy/MU for clinical linear accelerators. � For superficial and orthovoltage beams and occasionally for beams produced by teletherapy machines, the basic beam output may also be stated as the air kerma rate in air (in Gy/min) at a given distance from the source and for a given nominal collimator or applicator setting. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1 Slide 4
9.1 INTRODUCTION � The basic output calibration for photon and electron beams is carried out with: • Radiation dosimeters • Special dosimetry techniques. � Radiation dosimetry refers to a determination by measurement and/or calculation of: • Absorbed dose or • Some other physically relevant quantity, such as air kerma, fluence or equivalent dose at a given point in the medium. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1 Slide 5 9.1 INTRODUCTION � Radiation dosimeter is defined as any device that is capable of providing a reading M that is a measure of the dose D deposited in the dosimetr’s sensitive volume V by ionizing radiation. � Two categories of dosimeters are known: • Absolute dosimeter produces a signal from which the dose in its sensitive volume can be determined without requiring calibration in a known radiation field. • Relative dosimeter requires calibration of its signal in a known radiation field. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1 Slide 6
9.1 INTRODUCTION � Basic output calibration of a clinical radiation beam, by virtue of a direct determination of dose or dose rate in water under specific reference conditions, is referred to as reference dosimetry. � Three types of reference dosimetry technique are known: • Calorimetry • Fricke (chemical, ferrous sulfate) dosimetry • Ionization chamber dosimetry IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1 Slide 7 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.1.1 Calorimetry � Calorimetry is the most fundamental of the three reference dosimetry techniques, since it relies on basic definition of either electrical energy or temperature. • In principle, calorimetric dosimetry is simple. • In practice, calorimetric dosimetry is very complex because of the need for measuring extremely small temperature differences. This relegates the calorimetric dosimetry to sophisticated standards laboratories. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1.1 Slide 1
9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.1.1 Calorimetry Main characteristics of calorimetry dosimetry: � Energy imparted to matter by radiation causes an � T . increase in temperature � T . � Dose absorbed in the sensitive volume is proportional to � T � is measured with thermocouples or thermistors. � Calorimetric dosimetry is the most precise of all absolute dosimetry techniques. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1.1 Slide 2 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.1.1 Calorimetry � The following simple relationship holds: C p � T D = d E d m = 1 � � • D is the average dose in the sensitive volume • is the thermal capacity of the sensitive volume C p � • is the thermal defect � T • is the temperature increase � � T (water, 1 Gy) = 2.4 � 10 � 4 K Note: IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1.1 Slide 3
9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.1.1 Calorimetry � Two types of absorbed dose calorimeter are currently used in standards laboratories: • In graphite calorimeters the average temperature rise is measured in a graphite body that is thermally insulated from surrounding bodies (jackets) by evacuated vacuum gaps. • In sealed water calorimeters use is made of the low thermal diffusivity of water, which enables the temperature rise to be measured directly at a point in continuous water. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1.1 Slide 4 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.1.2 Fricke (chemical) dosimetry � Ionizing radiation absorbed in certain media produces a chemical change in the media and the amount of this chemical change in the absorbing medium may be used as a measure of absorbed dose. � The best known chemical radiation dosimeter is the Fricke dosimeter which relies on oxidation of ferrous ions (Fe 2 + ) (Fe 3 + ) into ferric ions in an irradiated ferrous sulfate FeSO 4 solution. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1.2 Slide 1
9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.1.2 Fricke (chemical) dosimetry � Concentration of ferric ions increases proportionally with dose and is measured with absorption of ultraviolet light (304 nm) in a spectrophotometer. � Fricke dosimetry depends on an accurate knowledge of the radiation chemical yield of ferric ions. � The radiation chemical yield G of ferric ions is measured in moles produced per 1 J of energy absorbed in the solution. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1.2 Slide 2 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.1.2 Fricke (chemical) dosimetry � An accurate value of the chemical yield G is difficult to ascertain because the chemical yield is affected by: • Energy of the radiation • Dose rate • Temperature of the solution during irradiation and readout. � G (Fe 3 + ) The chemical yield in mole/J is related to an Fe 3 + older parameter, the G value in molecules of per 100 eV of absorbed energy: 1 molecule/J = 1.037 � 10 � 4 mole/J IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1.2 Slide 3
9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.1.2 Fricke (chemical) dosimetry � Average absorbed dose in a Fricke solution is given as: � � M ( . .) O D = = = � D 278 ( . .) O D + + � �� � 3 3 G (Fe ) G Fe ( ) � M Fe 3 + . • is the change in molar concentration of � • is the density of the Fricke solution. � ( O . D .) • is the increase in optical density after irradiation. � • is the extinction coefficient. � • is the thickness of the solution. + Fe 3 + 3 • G (Fe ) is the chemical yield of in mole/J. IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1.2 Slide 4 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.1.2 Fricke (chemical) dosimetry � Recommended G values in molecule/100 eV • Photon beams (ICRU 14) Cs-137 15.3 2 MV 15.4 Co-60 15.5 4 MV 15.5 5 MV to 10 MV 15.6 11 MV to 30 MV 15.7 • Electron beams (ICRU 35) 1 MeV to 30 MeV 15.7 IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 9.1.2 Slide 5
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