Brochure Brochure More information from http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/2866138/ Endocrine Disruptors in the Environment Description: A concise and engaging overview of endocrine disruption phenomena that brings complex concepts within the reach of non–specialists For most of the last decade, the science of endocrine disruption has evolved with more definitive evidence of its damaging potential to health and environment. This book lists the major environmental chemicals of concern and their mechanism of endocrine disruption including remedial measures for them. Divided into three parts, Endocrine Disruptors in the Environment begins with an overview of the endocrine system and endocrine disruptors, discussing their salient features and presenting a historical perspective of endocrine disruption phenomena. It then goes on to cover hormone–signaling mechanisms, followed by various broad classes of putative endocrine disruptors, before introducing readers to environmental epigenetic modifications. Part two of the book focuses on removal processes of various EDCs by biotic and abiotic transformation/degradation. The last section consists of four chapters embracing themes on finding solutions to environmental EDCs including their detection, regulation, replacement, and remediation. Endocrine Disruptors in the Environment is the first book to detail the endocrine effects of several known environmental contaminants and their mechanism of endocrine disruption. Additionally, it: - Covers both the chemistry and biology of endocrine disruption and compiles almost all the known endocrine disrupting environmental chemicals and their mechanisms of toxicity - Addresses policy and regulatory issues relevant to EDCs including scientific uncertainty and precautionary policy - Brings forth the use of Green Chemistry principles in avoiding endocrine disruption in the designing and screening for safer chemicals and remediation of the EDCs in aquatic environment - Includes a useful glossary of technical terms, a list of acronyms, topical references, and a subject index Endocrine Disruptors in the Environment is an ideal book for environmental chemists and endocrine toxicologists, developmental biologists, endocrinologists, epidemiologists, environmental health scientists and advocates, and regulatory officials tasked with risk assessment in environment and health areas. Contents: Foreword xiv Preface xviii Acronyms xxi Glossary xxvi 1 Environmental Endocrine Disruptors 1 1.1 Introduction, 1 1.1.1 The Endocrine System, 1 1.1.2 Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs), 3 1.1.3 Sources of EDCs in the Environment, 4 1.1.4 Deleterious Effects of EDCs on Wildlife and on Humans, 6 1.1.5 Endocrine Disruption Endpoints, 6 1.2 Salient Aspects about Endocrine Disruption, 7
1.2.1 Low–Dose Effects and Nonmonotonic Dose Responses, 7 1.2.2 Exposures during Periods of Heightened Susceptibility in Critical Life Stages, 9 1.2.3 Delayed Dysfunction, 11 1.2.4 Importance of Mixtures, 11 1.2.5 Transgenerational, Epigenetic Effects, 12 1.3 Historical Perspective of Endocrine Disruption, 12 1.4 Scope and Layout of this Book, 19 1.5 Conclusion, 20 References, 21 PART I MECHANISMS OF HORMONAL ACTION AND PUTATIVE ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS 27 2 Mechanisms of Endocrine System Function 29 2.1 Introduction, 29 2.2 Hormonal Axes, 29 2.2.1 Hypothalamus Pituitary Gonad (HPG) Axis, 31 2.2.2 The Hypothalamic Pituitary Thyroid (HPT) Axis, 33 2.2.3 The Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) Axis, 34 2.3 Hormonal Cell Signaling, 35 2.3.1 Receptors and Hormone Action, 35 2.3.2 Genomic Signaling Pathway, 36 2.3.3 Rapid–Response Pathway (Nongenomic Signaling), 38 2.3.4 Receptor Agonists, Partial Agonists, and Antagonists, 40 2.4 Sex Steroids, 41 2.4.1 Physiologic Estrogens, 41 2.4.2 Androgens, 43 2.5 Thyroid Hormones, 45 2.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects, 46 References, 47 3 Environmental Chemicals Targeting Estrogen Signaling Pathways 51 3.1 Introduction, 51 3.1.1 Gonadal Estrogen Function Disruptors, 52 3.2 Steroidal Estrogens, 54 3.2.1 Physiologic Estrogens, 55
3.2.2 17 –Ethinylestradiol (EE2), 55 3.2.3 Phytoestrogens, 57 3.2.4 Mycoestrogen Zearalenone (ZEN), 59 3.3 Nonsteroidal Estrogenic Chemicals, 60 3.3.1 Diethylstilbestrol (DES), 60 3.3.2 Organochlorine Insecticides, 62 3.3.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), 65 3.3.4 Alkyphenols, 65 3.3.5 Parabens (Hydroxy Benzoates), 73 3.3.6 Sun Screens (Chemical UV Filters), 74 3.4 Metalloestrogens, 75 3.4.1 Cadmium (Cd), 76 3.4.2 Lead (Pb), 76 3.4.3 Mercury (Hg), 77 3.4.4 Arsenic (As), 77 3.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects, 78 References, 78 4 Anti–Androgenic Chemicals 91 4.1 Introduction, 91 4.2 Testosterone Synthesis Inhibitors, 92 4.2.1 Phthalates, 92 4.3 Androgen Receptor (AR) Antagonists, 96 4.3.1 Organochlorine (OC) Pesticides, 96 4.3.2 Organophosphorus (OP) Insecticides, 98 4.3.3 Bisphenol A (BPA), 99 4.3.4 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs), 99 4.3.5 Vinclozolin (VZ), 100 4.3.6 Procymidone, 101 4.4 AR Antagonists and Fetal Testosterone Synthesis Inhibitors, 102 4.4.1 Prochloraz, 102 4.4.2 Linuron, 103
4.5 Comparative Anti–Androgenic Effects of Pesticides to Androgen Agonist DHT, 103 4.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects, 103 References, 104 5 Thyroid–Disrupting Chemicals 111 5.1 Introduction, 111 5.2 Thyroid Synthesis Inhibition by Interference in Iodide Uptake, 113 5.2.1 Perchlorate, 113 5.3 TH Transport Disruptors and Estrogen Sulfotransferases Inhibitors, 114 5.3.1 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), 114 5.3.2 Triclosan, 116 5.4 Thyroid Hormone Level Disruptors, 117 5.4.1 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs), 117 5.5 Selective Thyroid Hormone Antagonists, 119 5.5.1 Bisphenols, 119 5.5.2 Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs), 120 5.5.3 Phthalates, 120 5.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects, 121 References, 121 6 Activators of PPAR, RXR, AhR, and Steroidogenic Factor 1 126 6.1 Introduction, 126 6.2 Peroxisome Proliferator–Activated Receptor (PPAR) Agonists, 127 6.2.1 Organotin Antifoulant Biocides, 128 6.2.2 Perfluoroalkyl Compounds (PFCs), 130 6.2.3 Phthalates, 132 6.3 Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) Agonists, 133 6.3.1 Polychlorinated–Dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and –Dibenzofurans (PCDFs), 133 6.3.2 Coplanar Polychlorinated Biphenyls, 135 6.3.3 Substituted Urea and Anilide Herbicides, 135 6.4 Steroidogenesis Modulator (Aromatase Expression Inducer), 136 6.4.1 Atrazine, 136 6.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects, 138 References, 139
7 Effects of EDC Mixtures 146 7.1 Introduction, 146 7.2 Combined Effect of Exposure to Multiple Chemicals, 146 7.3 Mixture Effects of Estrogenic Chemicals, 148 7.4 Mixture Effects of Estrogens and Anti–Estrogens, 151 7.5 Mixture Effects of Anti–Androgens, 152 7.5.1 Anti–Androgens with Common Mechanism of Action, 152 7.5.2 Anti–Androgens with Different Modes of Action, 154 7.5.3 Chronic Exposure of Low Dose Mixture of Anti–Androgens Versus Acute Exposure to High Dose Individual Compounds, 156 7.6 Mixture Effects of Thyroid Disrupting Chemicals, 157 7.7 Mixture Effects of Chemicals Acting via AhR, 158 7.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects, 158 References, 161 8 Environmentally Induced Epigenetic Modifications and Transgenerational Effects 166 8.1 Introduction, 166 8.2 Regulatory Epigenetic Modifications, 168 8.2.1 Methylation of Cytosine Residues in the DNA and Impact on Gene Expression (Transcriptional Silencing), 168 8.2.2 Remodeling of Chromatin Structure through Post–Translational Modifications of Histone Tails (Determinants of Accessibility), 170 8.2.3 Regulation of Gene Expression by Noncoding RNAs, 173 8.2.4 DNA Demethylation, 174 8.2.5 Assays for Epigenetic Modification, 175 8.3 Epigenetic Dysregulation Effects of Endocrine Disruption, 176 8.3.1 Bisphenol A (BPA): A Case Study, 177 8.3.2 DEHP, 179 8.4 Environmental Epigenetic Effects of Heavy Metals Exposure, 179 8.4.1 Cadmium, 180 8.4.2 Arsenic, 180 8.4.3 Nickel, 180 8.4.4 Lead, 181 8.5 Transgenerational Inheritance of Environmentally Induced Epigenetic Alterations, 181
8.5.1 DES, 182 8.5.2 Vinclozolin, 183 8.5.3 Methoxychlor, 185 8.5.4 BPA, 185 8.5.5 2,3,7,8–Tetrachlorodibenzo–p–dioxin (TCDD), 185 8.6 Transgenerational Actions of EDCs Mixture on Reproductive Disease, 186 8.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects, 187 References, 188 PART II REMOVAL MECHANISMS OF EDCs THROUGH BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC PROCESSES 195 9 Biodegradations and Biotransformations of Selected Examples of EDCs 197 9.1 Introduction, 197 9.2 Natural and Synthetic Steroidal Estrogens, 199 9.2.1 17 –Estradiol and Estrone, 199 9.2.2 17 –Ethynylestradiol, 202 9.3 Alkylphenols, 205 9.3.1 4–n–Nonylphenol (4–NP1), 205 9.3.2 4–tert–Nonylphenol Isomer 4–(1–Ethyl–1,4–Eimethylpentyl) Phenol (NP112), 208 9.3.3 4–tert–Nonylphenol Isomer 4–[1–Ethyl–1,3–Dimethylpentyl] Phenol (4–NP111), 210 9.3.4 4–n– and 4–tert–Octylphenols, 212 9.3.5 Bisphenol A, 214 9.4 Phthalates, 220 9.4.1 Di–n–butyl Phthalate (DBP), 221 9.4.2 n–Butyl Benzyl Phthalate (BBP), 222 9.4.3 Di–(2–ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP), 223 9.4.4 Di–n–octyl Phthalate (DOP), 226 9.5 Insecticides, 226 9.5.1 Methoxychlor, 226 9.6 Fungicides, 228 9.6.1 Vinclozolin, 228 9.6.2 Procymidone, 231 9.6.3 Prochloraz, 232
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