Investments in Limited Liability Companies (cont’d) Under the Delaware LLC Act, if the applicable LLC Agreement does not provide otherwise, an amendment will require approval of all members. An LLC Agreement that permits amendments with less than unanimous consent will permit an amendment to the LLC Agreement that could have the effect of imposing restrictions on non-consenting members and/or diluting their interests. 21
Sale of Substantially All of the Assets of an LLC Sale of substantially all of the assets. Very similar to a sale of assets by a corporation . DGCL Section 271 provides for specific authorization procedures in order to authorize a sale of substantially all of the assets. Unless the limited liability company agreement provides otherwise, the Delaware LLC Act does not provide for a specific statutory authorization to sell assets. Authorization of the sale will be governed by the LLC Agreement, as will the related decision to cause a dissolution and liquidation of assets. 22
“Appraisal Rights” Unlike many corporate statutes that provide equityholders with appraisal rights with respect to a merger or other transactions, most LLC Acts do not provide appraisal rights. A limited liability company agreement can provide for appraisal rights. 23
Fiduciary Duties Under Delaware law Unless otherwise provided in the limited liability company agreement, the traditional fiduciary duties applicable to a Delaware corporation apply to the managing and controlling persons of an LLC: The duty of care Equates to a gross negligence standard of care. The duty of loyalty Act in the best interest of the LLC and its investors . 24
Fiduciary Duties (cont’d) Most Limited Liability Company Acts permit the modification of fiduciary duties and the Delaware LLC Act in fact permits the elimination of fiduciary duties, provided that the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing cannot be eliminated. 25
Fiduciary Duties (cont’d) A complete elimination of fiduciary duties will severely limit the ability of a minority investor to challenge conduct by the controlling persons. “When parties exercise authority provided by the LP Act to eliminate fiduciary duties, they take away the most powerful of a court’s remedial gap -filling powers.” Lonegran v. EPE Holdings LLC, 5 A. 3d 1008 (Del. Ch. 2010). 26
Fiduciary Duties (cont’d) In the event that fiduciary duties are eliminated, a party is left solely with an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing claim. In general, the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing: Protects a party from being deprived of the fruits of the bargain; Is based on reasonable expectations at the time contract was entered into; Applies to the exercise of discretionary authority. 27
Indemnification and Exculpation Closely related to the consideration of fiduciary duties are the appropriate levels for indemnification and exculpation. Subject to public policy limitations, Delaware law allows parties to include indemnification provisions that will permit a person to be indemnified by the LLC for his or her own acts. Subject to public policy limitations, Delaware law allows parties to include exculpation provisions in an LLC Agreement that will protect a person from personal liability. 28
M&A: Leveraging LLCs in Structuring Transactions ─────────────────────── Capital Accounts and Tax Issues Joseph C. Mandarino November 6, 2014 Atlanta, Georgia Cohen Pollock Merlin & Small, P.C. 3350 Riverwood Parkway Suite 1600 Atlanta, Georgia 30339 www.cpmas.com 29
A. Understanding Capital Accounts B. Basics of LLC Taxation C. Preferred Interests D. Liquidating Distributions E. Incentive Compensation F. Techniques Involving Disregarded LLCs 30
Capital Account Rules 31
Capital Account Rules Assets versus Liabilities Assets Liabilities property $1,000 mortgage $500 cash $200 other $50 misc $100 sub-total $550 sub-total $1,300 total $1,300 total $550 Balance sheet does not "balance"! 32
Capital Account Rules Difference Plugged to Equity Assets Liabilities property $1,000 mortgage $500 cash $200 other $50 misc $100 sub-total $550 total $1,300 total $550 Balance sheet does not "balance"! 33
Capital Account Rules Difference Plugged to Equity Assets Liabilities capital accounts property $1,000 mortgage $500 cash $200 other $50 misc $100 sub-total $550 Capital member A $250 member B $250 member C $250 sub-total $750 total $1,300 total $1,300 Balance sheet balances! Difference between assets and liabilities almost always "plugged" in equity. For an LLC, the equity amounts are called "capital accounts" 34
Capital Account Rules profits – increase capital accounts • losses – decrease capital accounts • contributions – increase capital accounts • distributions – decrease capital accounts • 35
Capital Account Rules Capital Accounts Are Increased by Profits Assets Liabilities property $1,000 mortgage $500 cash $500 other $50 misc $100 sub-total $550 Capital member A $350 member B $350 member C $350 sub-total $1,050 total $1,600 total $1,600 Assets (cash) increase by $300 total. No change in liabilities so capital accounts must increase by $300 total or will not balance. Assumed that A, B and C share equally. 36
Capital Account Rules Capital Accounts Are Decreased by Distributions Assets Liabilities property $1,000 mortgage $500 cash $350 other $50 misc $100 sub-total $550 Capital member A $300 member B $300 member C $300 sub-total $900 total $1,450 total $1,450 Assume $150 distribution, so cash decreased by $150 total. No change in liabilities so capital accounts must decrease by $150 total or will not balance. Assumed that A, B and C share in distributions equally. 37
Capital Account Rules Company is Liquidated Flat Assets Liabilities property $1,000 mortgage $500 cash $350 other $50 misc $100 sub-total $550 Capital member A $300 member B $300 member C $300 sub-total $900 total $1,450 total $1,450 Assets sold for face value, or $1,450 in cash.. Cash applied first to liabilities (i.e., $550). After paying off liabilities, Company has $900 left over. Balance is distributed to A, B and C in satisfaction of their interests. 38
Capital Account Rules Company is Liquidated at Profit Assets Liabilities property $1,600 mortgage $500 cash $350 other $50 misc $100 sub-total $550 Capital member A $500 member B $500 member C $500 sub-total $1,500 total $2,050 total $2,050 Property worth $1,600, so total FMV of assets = $2,050 in cash. Cash applied first to liabilities (i.e., $550). After paying off liabilities, Company has $1,500 left over. Balance is distributed to A, B and C in satisfaction of their interests Assumed that A, B and C share profit equally. 39
Capital Accounts -- Life Cycle of Business Example -- Year 1 member A member B member C total 40% 40% 20% Year 1 start up initial contribution $1,000 $1,000 $500 $2,500 start up losses profit (loss) -$600 -$600 -$300 -$1,500 closing balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 40
Capital Accounts -- Life Cycle of Business Example -- Year 2 member A member B member C total 40% 40% 20% Year 1 start up initial contribution $1,000 $1,000 $500 $2,500 start up losses profit (loss) -$600 -$600 -$300 -$1,500 closing balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 Year 2 continued losses opening balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 profit (loss) -$200 -$200 -$100 -$500 closing balance $200 $200 $100 $500 41
Capital Accounts -- Life Cycle of Business Example -- Year 3 member A member B member C total 40% 40% 20% Year 1 start up initial contribution $1,000 $1,000 $500 $2,500 start up losses profit (loss) -$600 -$600 -$300 -$1,500 closing balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 Year 2 continued losses opening balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 profit (loss) -$200 -$200 -$100 -$500 closing balance $200 $200 $100 $500 Year 3 slight profit opening balance $200 $200 $100 $500 profit (loss) $200 $200 $100 $500 closing balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 42
Capital Accounts -- Life Cycle of Business Example -- Year 4 member A member B member C total 40% 40% 20% Year 1 start up initial contribution $1,000 $1,000 $500 $2,500 start up losses profit (loss) -$600 -$600 -$300 -$1,500 closing balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 Year 2 continued losses opening balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 profit (loss) -$200 -$200 -$100 -$500 closing balance $200 $200 $100 $500 Year 3 slight profit opening balance $200 $200 $100 $500 profit (loss) $200 $200 $100 $500 closing balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 Year 4 growing profit opening balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 profit (loss) $500 $500 $250 $1,250 distributions -$300 -$300 -$150 -$750 closing balance $600 $600 $300 $1,500 43
Capital Accounts -- Life Cycle of Business Example -- Year 5 member A member B member C total 40% 40% 20% Year 1 start up initial contribution $1,000 $1,000 $500 $2,500 start up losses profit (loss) -$600 -$600 -$300 -$1,500 closing balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 Year 2 continued losses opening balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 profit (loss) -$200 -$200 -$100 -$500 closing balance $200 $200 $100 $500 Year 3 slight profit opening balance $200 $200 $100 $500 profit (loss) $200 $200 $100 $500 closing balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 Year 4 growing profit opening balance $400 $400 $200 $1,000 profit (loss) $500 $500 $250 $1,250 distributions -$300 -$300 -$150 -$750 closing balance $600 $600 $300 $1,500 Year 5 sell assets and opening balance $600 $600 $300 $1,500 liquidate profit (loss) $2,400 $2,400 $1,200 $6,000 distributions -$3,000 -$3,000 -$1,500 -$7,500 closing balance $0 $0 $0 $0 44
More Complex Allocations – Year 1 member A member B member C total Year 1 start up initial contribution $2,000 $500 $0 $2,500 preferred return (10%) $200 $0 $0 $200 start up losses operating profit (loss) -$850 -$850 $0 -$1,700 closing balance $1,350 -$350 $0 $1,000 member A 10% preferred return; 50% of operating profits; 40% of capital profits member B 50% of operating profits; 40% of capital profits member C 20% of capital profits 45
More Complex Allocations – Year 2 member A member B member C total Year 1 start up initial contribution $2,000 $500 $0 $2,500 preferred return (10%) $200 $0 $0 $200 start up losses operating profit (loss) -$850 -$850 $0 -$1,700 closing balance $1,350 -$350 $0 $1,000 Year 2 continued losses opening balance $1,350 -$350 $0 $1,000 preferred return (10%) $200 $0 $0 $200 operating profit (loss) -$350 -$350 $0 -$700 closing balance $1,200 -$700 $0 $500 member A 10% preferred return; 50% of operating profits; 40% of capital profits member B 50% of operating profits; 40% of capital profits member C 20% of capital profits 46
More Complex Allocations – Year 3 member A member B member C total Year 2 continued losses opening balance $1,350 -$350 $0 $1,000 preferred return (10%) $200 $0 $0 $200 operating profit (loss) -$350 -$350 $0 -$700 closing balance $1,200 -$700 $0 $500 Year 3 slight profit opening balance $1,200 -$700 $0 $500 preferred return (10%) $200 $0 $0 $200 operating profit (loss) $150 $150 $0 $300 closing balance $1,550 -$550 $0 $1,000 member A 10% preferred return; 50% of operating profits; 40% of capital profits member B 50% of operating profits; 40% of capital profits member C 20% of capital profits 47
More Complex Allocations – Year 4 member A member B member C total Year 3 slight profit opening balance $1,200 -$700 $0 $500 preferred return (10%) $200 $0 $0 $200 operating profit (loss) $150 $150 $0 $300 closing balance $1,550 -$550 $0 $1,000 Year 4 growing profit opening balance $1,550 -$550 $0 $1,000 preferred return (10%) $200 $0 $0 $200 operating profit (loss) $525 $525 $0 $1,050 distributions -$300 -$300 -$150 -$750 closing balance $1,975 -$325 -$150 $1,500 member A 10% preferred return; 50% of operating profits; 40% of capital profits member B 50% of operating profits; 40% of capital profits member C 20% of capital profits 48
More Complex Allocations – Year 5 member A member B member C total Year 4 growing profit opening balance $1,550 -$550 $0 $1,000 preferred return (10%) $200 $0 $0 $200 operating profit (loss) $525 $525 $0 $1,050 distributions -$300 -$300 -$150 -$750 closing balance $1,975 -$325 -$150 $1,500 Year 5 sell assets and opening balance $1,975 -$325 -$150 $1,500 liquidate preferred return (10%) $200 $0 $0 $200 operating profit (loss) $525 $525 $0 $1,050 capital profit (loss) $1,900 $1,900 $950 $4,750 distributions -$4,600 -$2,100 -$800 -$7,500 closing balance $0 $0 $0 $0 member A 10% preferred return; 50% of operating profits; 40% of capital profits member B 50% of operating profits; 40% of capital profits member C 20% of capital profits 49
Basic Taxation • “double taxation” v. “pass - through” • check-the-box rules 50
Double Taxation taxable income of Newco $100 corporate taxes (40%) -$40 cash flow available for dividend $60 dividend to Sam $60 tax to Sam on dividend income (25%) -$15 net after-tax cash flow $45 all taxes $55 effective tax rate 55% 51
Single Taxation taxable income of Newco $100 taxes on Newco (0%) -$0 cash flow available for distribution $100 tax to Sam on her allocable share of Newco’s income (40%) -$40 distribution to Sam $100 tax to Sam on distribution (0%) -$0 net after-tax cash flow $60 all taxes ($40) $40 effective tax rate 40% 52
Check-the-Box Rules • The check-the-box rules provide for default classification for certain entities. • In the case of a partnership or LLC, the default classification is a partnership (if there are two or more owners) or a disregarded entity (“DRE”) if there is only one owner. • A partnership or LLC can also elect to be taxed as a corporation. • A partnership or LLC that wants to elect to be taxed as a corporation, or wishes to make a safe-harbor election as to its default classification makes the election on IRS Form 8832. • Generally, the effective date of the election is the date the form is filed. However, the entity can select and effective date as much as 75 days prior to the filing date or as much as 12 months after the filing date. In addition, the IRS will sometimes grant an extension of time to make an election. • Generally, an entity cannot change its election for 60 months, but there are exceptions. 53
Preferred or Senior Interests 54
Preferred or Senior Interests • As noted, partnership and LLC interests can be designed in an almost unlimited fashion. • In general, a preferred or senior interest will entitle the holder to distributions and profits earlier than other holders. • In some cases, senior investors may prefer to structure their investment as debt and require a special allocation of interest. 55
Senior Interests -- Example preferred units treated as equity preferred units treated as debt senior owners other owners total owner/lenders other owners total preferred payment $ 750 $ - $ 750 $ - $ - $ - common payment $ 125 $ 125 $ 250 $ 125 $ 125 $ 250 preferred allocation $ 750 $ - $ 750 common allocation $ 125 $ 125 $ 250 $ 500 $ 500 $ 1,000 interest expense $ (750) $ - $ (750) taxable income $ 875 $ 125 $ 1,000 $ (250) $ 500 $ 250 tentative income $ 875 $ 125 $ 1,000 $ 500 $ 500 $ 1,000 less interest expense $ - $ (750) $ - $ (750) taxable income $ 875 $ 125 $ 1,000 $ (250) $ 500 $ 250 partnership income $ 875 $ (250) interest income $ - $ 750 net income to senior owners $ 875 $ 500 preferred payment $ 750 $ - common payment $ 125 $ 125 interest payment $ - $ 750 total cash to senior owners $ 875 $ 875 56
Liquidating Distributions 57
Liquidating Distributions • In general, a liquidating distribution can be analogized to a stock redemption. • The partner receives a distribution from the partnership in exchange for or liquidation of his or her interest in the partnership. • Can be a single or series of distributions. 58
Liquidating Distributions • The tax treatment of a liquidating distribution varies depending on what type of property is distributed. • cash – gain/loss recognized • “marketable securities” – treated same as cash • all other property – generally no gain/loss – instead take the property with a carryover basis. 59
Liquidating Distributions • Cash includes “deemed” cash distributions from relief of liabilities. • “Marketable securities” are financial instruments and foreign currencies that are actively traded – these are treated as cash substitutes and the same tax consequences attend them. • “financial instruments” defined as stocks and other equity interests, debt, options, forward or futures contracts, notional principal contracts, and derivatives 60
Liquidating Distributions • If cash or marketable securities are received, and the total exceeds the partner’s outside tax basis, then the difference is recognized as gain. • Loss can be recognized but only if the to the extent the distribution consists solely of cash or §751 assets. • Receipt of other property generally will not result in gain or loss. Instead, the partner’s outside tax basis will be spread over the received property. 61
Liquidating Distributions -- Example • A and B are unrelated corporations. They decide form AB Co. to manufacture and exploit a new product. • A contributes technology and other intangible property valued by A and B at $1 million. • B contributes a factory and equipment which A and B value at $1 million. • A and B agree to share all items 50/50. 62
Liquidating Distributions -- Example • At the end of year 3, it is clear that the new product is not selling well and A and B agree to end the relationship. • AB Co. distributes (i) the technology and other intangible property back to A, and (ii) the factory and equipment back to B. 63
Liquidating Distributions -- Example First Observation: • In general, this will not be a taxable transaction. • Note, in contrast, that the break up of a similar joint venture housed in a corporation could be taxable depending on the facts; even if it qualified as a tax – free split up, the transaction would likely trigger significant tax compliance costs and delays. 64
Liquidating Distributions -- Example Second Observation: • Assume that there is a pool of receivables and cash, in addition to the property originally contributed by A and B. • The cash likely can be received tax-free, but will reduce the basis of A and B in the property they receive. • The A/R probably can be received tax-free. 65
Liquidating Distributions -- Example Third Observation: • Assume that there are also some payables and other liabilities. • Depending how these are allocated between A and B, one or the other partner could be treated as being relieved of a liability that was previously included in basis. This is treated as a deemed cash distribution. 66
Compensation Planning, Options and Incentive Arrangements A. Overview B. Capital vs. Profits Interests C. Section 83 and Vesting D. Options to Acquire LLC Interests E. Consequences to the LLC F. Proposed IRS Regulations 67
Compensation Planning, Options and Incentive Arrangements • In general, the receipt of an LLC interest in exchange for services performed (or to be performed) for the LLC is taxable to the recipient. The amount of income is equal to the fair market value (“FMV”) of the LLC interest, and is taxed as compensation income. • However, this general rule is subject to numerous exceptions. 68
Capital vs. Profits Interests • The first exception to the general rule is that the receipt of a profits-only interest is usually not taxable to the recipient. In order to understand the operation of this exception, it is important to distinguish between profits and capital interests. • An equity interest in an LLC can give the holder an interest in the LLC’s capital, its profits, or both. 69
Capital Interest • A capital interest is an interest in the LLC’s capital. • Example 1: Smith and Jones form Newco, LLC, by investing $500 each. Newco has a total capital balance of $1,000. A day later, Newco issues a 20% capital interest to Dewey, in exchange for Dewey’s promise to perform services for Newco. • A 20% capital interest should entitle the recipient to 20% of the capital of the LLC. Here, the LLC has a capital balance of $1,000, so the FMV of the interest is $200. Absent any other facts, Dewey will be treated as receiving $200 in compensation income as a result of this award. 70
Profits Interest • A profits interest is an interest solely in the profits of the LLC. • Example 2: Smith and Jones form Newco, LLC, by investing $500 each. A day later, Newco issues a 20% profits interest to Dewey, in exchange for Dewey’s promise to perform services for Newco. • A 20% profits interest should entitle the recipient to 20% of the profits of the LLC. However, unless the LLC actually earns profits, the holder is not entitled to anything. • As discussed below, the IRS has taken the position that in general the grant of a profits interest in exchange for services is not a taxable event. (The recipient will, of course, be taxable on his or her share of any income earned by the LLC.) 71
Distinction • A good test to determine whether an LLC interest is taxable is to determine what would happen if the LLC immediately vested. • In general, the holder of a capital interest would be entitled to his or her share of LLC capital, while a profits interest generally only entitles a recipient to profits going forward. • In the absence of unusual facts (i.e., an LLC which holds government bonds), the IRS has taken the position that future profits are too speculative to warrant taxing a profits interest on the front end. • In analyzing a grant of an LLC interest it is very important to focus on the specific terms of the grant. For example, a back-dated grant of a profits interest could be a capital interest. 72
Distinction • Example 3: The facts are the same as Example 2, but the profits interest is drafted so that it entitles Dewey to a 20% interest in the profits of the LLC for the entire year. As a factual matter, the interest was actually granted on July 1, 2006. • In this case, the back dating of the grant has converted a non-taxable profits interest into a taxable capital interest. This is because Dewey receives a right to already-earned income, even though the interest purports to be a profits interest. The interest would be taxable to Dewey at least to the extent of the already earned income. 73
Section 83 and Vesting • A capital interest that is granted subject to certain conditions can be received tax free. • The IRS takes the position that section 83 applies to LLC interests. Accordingly, if property is transferred to a taxpayer in exchange for services, the taxpayer must include the FMV of the property in income. However, if the property is subject to a substantial risk of forfeiture, the income event does not occur until the risk lapses. The FMV of the property at that time (the vesting date) is the amount included in income. • Thus, if an otherwise taxable capital interest is granted to a taxpayer, but the grant is subject to certain types of restrictions, then the FMV of the interest is not included in income until the restrictions lapse. 74
Section 83 and Vesting • The most common type of restriction that qualifies for this treatment is a requirement that the recipient continue to perform services. Thus, if a grant of a capital interest is conditioned on the recipient working for the LLC for four years, and if the interest would be forfeited because of a violation of this condition, then the receipt of the interest will not be taxable. When the interest vests in four years, the recipient will have to include the then-FMV into income. • Another common restriction is a requirement that the LLC’s earnings increase by a stated percentage or dollar amount. • Although the matter is not clear, it appears that until a recipient’s LLC interest vests, he or she is not treated as a member of the LLC for tax purposes. Any distributions to the recipient by virtue of his or her rights in the LLC under state law are treated as compensation income to the recipient. 75
Section 83(b) Election • The Code provides a significant tax election that permits the recipient of property subject to a substantial risk of forfeiture to ignore that restriction for tax purposes. • In effect, this allows a recipient to override the regular rules of section 83 and take property into income as of the date of grant (rather than the date it vests). • Thus, if the grant is likely to be much more valuable by the time it vests, it may make sense to treat the grant as a taxable event today, and thereby avoid having to treat the increase in value at the time of vesting as income. 76
Section 83(b) Election Example: • Smith and Jones form Newco, LLC, by investing $500 each. A day later, Newco issues a 20% capital interest to Dewey, in exchange for Dewey’s promise to perform services for Newco. The terms of the grant require Dewey to forfeit his interest if he does not provide certain stated services to Newco for the next four years. As of the date of the grant, Dewey’s capital interest is worth $200. Assume that four years after grant, Dewey’s capital interest is now worth $2,000. • Absent a §83(b) election, Dewey is taxed at the time of vesting on compensation income of $2,000. • HOWEVER -- if Dewey makes a §83(b) election, he is taxed at the time of grant on compensation income of only $200. • Note that this tax election has a very short fuse and must be filed within 30 days of the date of grant. 77
Option to Acquire LLC Interest • A compensatory option to acquire an interest in an LLC is generally not treated as a property interest which is taxable under section 83. As a result, until the option is exercised there is no taxable event. If the interest received as a result of the grant is a profits interest, the transaction will usually not result in any taxable income. • If the interest received is a capital interest, the recipient will have to include the value of the interest in income. However, if the interest is subject to a substantial risk of forfeiture, then the income event will be deferred until the risk lapses. 78
Effects on LLC • The grant of an LLC interest in exchange for services may give rise to two LLC- level tax consequences. • First, the value of the grant will be a compensation expense for the LLC. • If the timing of the income is deferred by section 83, the timing of the compensation expense will also be deferred. Generally, the amount and timing of the income included by the recipient should match the amount and timing of the deduction for the LLC. • Note that in many cases compensation expense is an ordinary and necessary business expense and can be deducted in full under section 162. However, if the capitalization rules apply, the expense will have to be capitalized into basis and recovered (possibly) through depreciation and amortization deductions over time. • Second, if the grant is a capital interest there is an argument that the resulting capital shift may trigger LLC-level gain. This would only be the case if some or all of the LLC’s assets are appreciated. There is no guidance on the matter and reasonable arguments can be made for and against. 79
Proposed IRS Regulations • In 2005, the IRS proposed extensive rules to govern the granting of partnership and LLC interests in exchange for services. • They substantially conform to current IRS practice. • Thus, a vested capital interest is taxable to the recipient. • A vested profits interest is also taxable, but the IRS would establish a special valuation safe harbor that would treat such an interest as having zero value. If the safe harbor is not used, a grant of a profits interest could be taxable to the recipient, but it would depend on the value of the interest. • In the case of unvested interests, the section 83 regime would apply, with the effects described above. • The proposed regulations also appear to state that the issuance of a capital interest would not trigger taxable gain to the LLC. 80
Techniques Involving Disregarded Entities A. Treatment of LLC as Disregarded Entity B. Simple Example – Transfer of Real Estate C. Transfer of Risky Assets D. Corporate Reorganizations E. Regulatory Issues F. Like-Kind Exchanges G. Alternative to Series LLC 81
Treatment of LLC as Disregarded Entity • If an LLC has only a single owner, by default the LLC will be treated as a “disregarded entity” or “DRE”. Alternatively, the owner can elect to treat the LLC as a corporation. • An LLC treated as a DRE is, as the term implies, ignored for tax purposes. • Thus, the assets and liabilities of the DRE are treated, for tax purposes, as the assets and liabilities of the sole owner of the DRE. • In addition, in many cases the actions of the DRE are treated as the actions of the sole owner. • This can provide significant planning opportunities. 82
Simple Example – Transfer of Real Estate • One of the simplest uses of DREs is to hold real estate. • Example 1: Smith and Jones form Newco, LLC with $1 million each. Newco desires to purchases four separate apartment buildings, each costing $2 million. Newco goes to a bank and arranges for a $1.75 million loan on each building (it uses the contributed cash to fund the balance of each purchase price). • In the absence of any additional structuring, this arrangement poses the following potential problems: 83
Simple Example – Transfer of Real Estate • Liability Protection – Because each building is held in a separate entity, the assets of one DRE are walled off against the liabilities of the other DREs. • Transfer Taxes – If Newco desired to sell one of the buildings, it simply transfers its membership interest in the DRE that owns that building. This (under current law) should not trigger real estate transfer taxes. In addition, if the assets consisted of tangible personal property, a transfer of a DRE that owned the assets should also avoid sales tax. • Recordation/Delays – Because Newco need only transfer its membership interest in one of the DREs to effectuate a transfer, there is no need to record the change and no fees associated with that. Furthermore, such a transfer can generally be accomplished faster and cheaper than a transfer of real property. 84
Simple Example – Transfer of Real Estate • Example 2: Same facts as Example 1, except that Newco forms four DREs below it, each of which holds a different apartment building. Each DRE separately borrows $1.75 million and Newco contributes $250,000 to each, so that each DRE can purchase one of the building buildings. • This arrangement resolves the potential problems listed above: 85
Transfer of Risky Assets • As noted above, assets that may have liabilities associated with them can benefit from being held in an LLC. • Risky assets can include assets with potential liability from past actions (i.e., real estate which may have environmental complications) or assets that may incur liability in the future (i.e., a business that is now subject to potentially damaging liability – i.e., fast food franchises, database companies, etc., that could be sued as part of a class action). • If a business is considering moving risky assets, a DRE can be used 86
Example • FoodCo is a limited partnership that owns 20 fast food franchises throughout the southeast. Because of concern over potential class action lawsuits, FoodCo would like to restructure. • One approach is for FoodCo to create a separate DRE for each franchise and hold it as a subsidiary. This would be particularly helpful in connection with future risks. Because FoodCo historically operated the businesses that are being sued, this may not fully protect FoodCo if the basis for liability includes past actions. 87
Example • Another approach is for FoodCo to distribute out to its owners any assets that are not at risk. For example, assume that FoodCo also operates several service businesses that are not targets of class-action programs. • In that case, it may be effective to distribute FoodCo’s “safe” assets out and operate them as separate businesses. FoodCo could form DREs to hold each safe business and distribute the DREs to its owners. • In this way, the owners of FoodCo would receive a complete business, would be shielded from any potential liability associated with the business, and the business could operate without interruption. 88
Corporate Reorganizations -- Simple Mergers • Assume X Corp would like to acquire Y Corp. The shareholders of Y Corp agree, but would like the acquisition to be non-taxable. • One way to do this is for Y to merge into X, with Y going out of existence. The shares of Y are cancelled and convert into shares of X in an agreed upon ratio. • Assume that Y is a consumer information database company and X is concerned that any inappropriate sharing or leak of information could subject the business to significant liability. If Y is merged into X, then any liability associated with the operations of Y could threaten X’s other businesses. 89
Simple Mergers • One solution is for X to form a DRE, Newco, LLC, and have Y merge into Newco, with Newco surviving. This can be accomplished on a tax-free basis with the shareholders of Y receiving X stock in exchange for their shares. • Note that this could also be accomplished by using a corporate subsidiary of X. The benefit of using an LLC in this situation is primarily ease of use. • However, if X owned a subsidiary, Z Corp, and wanted to acquire Y below Z, then it could not form a new corporate subsidiary below Z to do this. Instead it would have to use a DRE. 90
C Reorganizations • Assume that X Corp wants to acquire Y Corp, but that Y owns a tract of land that has significant potential environmental liability associated with it. If Y requires that the transaction be structured as a tax-free reorganization, the use of a merger may be resisted by X as that would put Y’s tract inside X (or a subsidiary). In this situation, X and Y can enter into what is called a “C” reorganization. • Under a C reorganization, X (or a subsidiary of X) acquires substantially all the assets of Y and issues shares to Y in return. Y liquidates, distributing any remaining assets along with the X shares to its shareholders. • This generally is tax- free to Y’s shareholders, and means that X can acquire Y’s business assets without acquiring the risky tract of land. 91
C Reorganizations • However, further protection can be added by the use of DREs. • Even though the transaction can be structured so that X (or a subsidiary) specifically does not acquire the tract of land that has a significant liability associated with it, there may still be a risk that X (and/or its subsidiary) will nonetheless share some liability solely because of the acquisition of the balance of Y’s assets. • One approach to better protect against this is for X to form a subsidiary that in turn forms a DRE to receive the assets. • This arguably will place two layers of protection between the assets and X Corp. 92
C Reorganizations • In addition to the possible protection afforded to X Corp, a DRE can provide protection to Y’s shareholders. • Recall that as a condition to the C reorganization, Y must liquidate and distribute the X stock and its remaining assets to Y’s shareholders. • If the tract of land were received directly by the shareholders, there may be additional liability. • One way to protect against this is to drop all or some of Y’s assets into a DRE and distribute out LLC interests in lieu of direct ownership. 93
Triangular Mergers • As noted, if X Corp owns Z Corp, and Z would like to acquire Y Corp for stock of X Corp, but does not want Y Corp to merge directly into Z Corp, it can accomplish this by forming a DRE below Z and having Y merger into the DRE with the DRE surviving. 94
Regulatory Issues • Regulatory issues can also be resolved with the use of a DRE. • For example, in some states, a bank and a bank holding company cannot merge. • However, a bank may be able to merge into a DRE owned by a bank holding company. 95
Like-Kind Exchanges • Under Code section 1031, a taxpayer can avoid gain on property by exchanging it for property of “like kind.” Particularly with respect to real estate, there is wide latitude as to what constitutes like kind property. As a result, many owners of real estate frequently engage in like kind exchanges rather than taxable sales. • However, any direct interaction with real estate creates a certain amount of risk. One solution is to acquire the new property in a DRE. For tax purposes, the acquisition of a DRE that owns a piece of real estate will be treated the same as the acquisition of a piece of real estate directly. 96
Alternatives to Series • Series LLCs are not yet permitted in most states. • It is unclear how a series LLC from, say Delaware, would be treated in a state that does not recognize such an entity, either as a matter of state tax law or state LLC law. • Given the complexity associated with series LLCs and the uncertain state law and state tax treatment, are there viable alternatives? • holding company LLC with LLC subsidiaries • multiple separate LLCs • single LLC with schedular allocations 97
Holding LLC with Subs Member 1 Member 2 Member 3 Member 4 A = 1% A = 1% A = 25% A = 73% B = 1% B = 90% B = 1% B = 8% C = 1% C = 1% C = 90% C = 8% D = 59% D = 30% D = 1% D = 10% Holding LLC LLC A LLC B LLC C LLC D 98
Holding LLC with Subs • Holding LLC owns 4 separate LLCs, each a “subsidiary” LLC. • Note that by using separate LLCs, the assets of each LLC are walled off from the other LLCs. • The Holding LLC also provides an additional layer of protection, and need not be an LLC that is formed under the same jurisdiction as the subsidiary LLCs. • Each subsidiary has only a single owner, so should be treated as “disregarded entities” for income tax purposes. 99
Holding LLC with Subs • Will Holding LLC be treated as a separate partnership for income tax purposes? • This an open question because of the schedular allocations. Under current law, Holding LLC may be ignored and the four subsidiary LLCs may be treated as separate entities. • In fact, it may be preferable to ignore Holding LLC and treat the subsidiary LLCs as separate entities. 100
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