socio-organizational issues and stakeholder requirements • Organizational issues affect acceptance chapter 13 – conflict & power, who benefits, encouraging use • Stakeholders – identify their requirements in organizational context • Socio-technical m odels socio-organizational – human and technical requirements • Soft system s m ethodology issues and stakeholder – broader view of human and organizational issues • Participatory design requirements – includes the user directly in the design process • Ethnographic m ethods – study users in context, unbiased perspective Organisational issues Conflict and power ? Organisational factors can make or break a system CSCW = computer supported cooperative work Studying the work group is not sufficient – people and groups have conflicting goals – any system is used within a wider context – system s assum ing cooperation will fail! – and the crucial people need not be direct users Before installing a new system must understand: e.g. com puterise stock control – who benefits – who puts in effort stockm an looses control of inform ation – the balance of power in the organisation � subverts the system … and how it will be affected Even when a system is successful identify stakeholders – not just the users … it may be difficult to measure that success Organisational structures Invisible workers • Groupware affects organisational structures Telecommunications improvements allow: – neighbourhood workcentres – com m unication structures reflect line m anagem ent – home-based tele- working – em ail – cross-organisational com m unication Many ecological and economic benefits – reduce car travel Disenfranchises lower management – flexible family commitments � disaffected staff and ‘sabotage’ but: – ‘management by presence’ doesn't work – presence increases perceived worth Technology can be used to change management – problems for promotion style and power structures Barriers to tele-working are managerial/ social – but need to know that is what we are doing not technological – and m ore often an accident ! 1
Benefits for all? Free rider problem Disproportionate effort no bias, but still problem who puts in the effort � who gets the benefit possible to get benefit without doing work Exam ple: shared diary: – effort: secretaries and subordinates, enter data if everyone does it, system falls into disuse – benefit: manager easy to arrange meetings e.g. electronic conferences – result: falls into disuse – possible to read but never contribute Solutions: – coerce use ! solutions: – design in symmetry strict protocols (e.g., round robin) increase visibility – rely on social pressure Critical mass Critical mass strong benefit when Early telephone system: lots of users few subscribers – no one to ring lots of subscribers – never stops ringing! Electronic com m unications sim ilar: .. but little benefit benefit � num ber of subscribers for early users early users have negative cost/ benefit need critical m ass to give net benefits How to get started? – look for cliques to form core user base – design to benefit an initial sm all user base solution – increase zero point benefit Evaluating the benefits capturing requirements Assuming we have avoided the pitfalls! • need to identify requirements within context of use How do we m easure our success? • need to take account of job satisfaction and inform ation flow – hard to m easure – stakeholders econom ic benefit – work groups and practices – diffuse throughout organisation – organisational context But .. • m any approaches including costs of hardware and software – socio- technical m odelling … only too obvious – soft system m odelling Perhaps we have to rely on hype! – participatory design – contextual inquiry 2
who are the stakeholders? who are the stakeholders? Example: Classifying stakeholders – an airline booking • system will have many stakeholders system with potentially conflicting interests An international airline is considering introducing a new booking system for use by associated travel agents to sell • stakeholder is anyone effected by flights directly to the public. success or failure of system Primary stakeholders: travel agency staff, airline booking – prim ary - actually use system staff Secondary stakeholders: customers, airline management – secondary - receive output or provide input Tertiary stakeholders: competitors, civil aviation – tertiary - no direct involvement but effected authorities, customers’ travelling companions, airline by success or failure shareholders – facilitating - involved in developm ent or Facilitating stakeholders: design team, IT department staff deployment of system who are the stakeholders? socio-technical modelling • designers need to meet as many • response to technological determ inism stakeholder needs as possible • concerned with technical, social, organizational and human aspects of design – usually in conflict so have to prioritise • describes im pact of specific technology on – often priority decreases as move down organization categories e.g. primary most important • inform ation gathering: interviews, – not always e.g. life support machine observation, focus groups, docum ent analysis • several approaches e.g. – CUSTOM – OSTA CUSTOM OSTA • Eight stage m odel - focus on task • Six stage process - focus on stakeholders – primary task identified in terms of users’ goals – describe organizational context, including primary goals, – task inputs to system identified physical characteristics, political and economic background – external environment into which the system will be – identify and describe stakeholders including personal introduced is described, including physical, economic and issues, role in the organization and job political aspects – identify and describe work-groups whether formally – transformation processes within the system are described constituted or not in terms of actions performed on or with objects – identify and describe task–object pairs i.e. tasks to be – social system is analyzed, considering existing internal and performed and objects used external work-groups and relationships – identify stakeholder needs: stages 2–4 described in terms – technical system is described in terms of configuration and of both current and proposed system - stakeholder needs integration with other systems are identified from the differences between the two – performance satisfaction criteria are established, indicating – consolidate and check stakeholder requirements against social and technical requirements of system earlier criteria – new technical system is specified 3
soft systems methodology CATWOE • no assum ption of technological solution - • Clients: those who receive output or benefit from the system emphasis on understanding situation fully • Actors: those who perform activities within the system • developed by Checkland • Transform ations: the changes that are affected by the • seven stages system • W eltanschauung: (from the German) or World View - how – recognition of problem and initiation of analysis the system is perceived in a particular root definition – detailed description of problem situation Ow ner: those to whom the system belongs, to whom it is • rich picture • answerable and who can authorize changes to it – generate root definitions of system • CATWOE • Environm ent: the world in which the system operates and by which it is influenced – conceptual model - identifying transformations – compare real world to conceptual model – identify necessary changes – determine actions to effect changes Participatory design Participatory Design • User is an active member of the design team. I n participatory design: w orkers enter into design context • Characteristics – context and work oriented rather than system oriented – collaborative I n ethnography (as used for design): – iterative designer enters into work context • Methods – brain-storming – storyboarding Both m ake workers feel valued in design – workshops – pencil and paper exercises … encourage workers to ‘own’ the products ETHICS Ethnography • participatory socio-technical approach devised very influential in CSCW by Mumford a form of anthropological study with special – system developm ent is about m anaging change – non-participants m ore likely to be dissatisfied focus on social relationships • three levels of participation does not enter actively into situation – consultative, representative, consensus • design groups including stakeholder seeks to understand social culture representatives make design decisions • job satisfaction is key to solution unbiased and open ended 4
contextual inquiry • Approach developed by Holtzblatt – in ethnographic tradition but acknowledges and challenges investigator focus – model of investigator being apprenticed to user to learn about work – investigation takes place in workplace - detailed interviews, observation, analysis of communications, physical workplace, artefacts – number of models created: • sequence, physical, flow, cultural, artefact • models consolidated across users – output indicates task sequences, artefacts and communication channels needed and physical and cultural constraints 5
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