Schemas influence how we behave Bargh and colleagues IV: primed polite or rude DV: how long participant waited to interrupt the Social Cognition experimenter Results: faster if primed rude Other studies: (continued) --primed elderly stereotype or neutral words and assessed walking speed How do we decide which schema to use? Schemas can sometimes get us into trouble Depends on schema accessibility Situational cues Confirmation biases: Tendencies to interpret, seek, Recency of schema activation and create information that verifies our preexisting Priming beliefs or schemas. Bargh studies The Donald Study Examples of confirmation biases Do not need conscious awareness Personal chronic constructs Belief perseverance: The tendency to maintain beliefs, even after they have been discredited. 1
Ross et al. (1975) Confirming prior expectations by asking loaded questions IV: Success, failure, average feedback about ability to detect “real” or “fake” suicide notes Snyder & Swann, 1978 Intervention: E explained feedback was randomly IV: Expectations about person to be interviewed: assigned and completely false. (Discredited original Introverted or extraverted belief) DV: Selection of interview questions. Slanted toward DV: Estimates of how well would actually do on this extraverted, introverted, or neutral. task Results: Participants asked loaded questions that Results: Beliefs persevered. Estimates closely confirmed their prior expectations. matched false feedback subjects had received, even though it had been discredited. The Social Self I. What is the self-concept? Self as a social construction: James, Cooley, Mead Who am I? Self-schemas II. Social Context The social self Spontaneous self-concept (immediate context) Self-awareness (immediate context) Socio-cultural context (broader context) Sensitivity to context (Self-monitoring) III. Mechanisms of self-enhancement Self-serving cognitions Self-handicapping Defensive pessimism Basking in reflected glory Downward social comparison 2
William James (1890): A person has "as many social Who Am I? selves as there are individuals who recognize him and carry an image of him in their minds." 1. I am …. 2. I am…. Charles Cooley (1902): Views of self reflect the 3. I am… standpoints of significant others in our lives . ("looking glass self") . . George Herbert Mead (1934): We imagine the . perspectives of others and incorporate these into our . self views -- and this occurs continuously as we . interact with others on an ongoing, moment to 20. I am… moment basis . Self-schema (Markus): a set of well-elaborated Self-awareness theory (Duval & Wicklund): The idea knowledge about the self that guides the processing that when people focus their attention on of self-relevant information and is based on past themselves, they evaluate and compare their social experiences behavior to their internal standards and values. --Schematics faster than aschematics to endorse as Self-focus is associated with: self-descriptive words in schematic domain (e.g., --a drop in self-esteem (probably because comparing independence) self with a social standard, or with ideal self) --behaving in line with socially desirable (and --Schematics resist evidence contradicting their view probably internalized) standards of themselves in the schematic domain. Spontaneous self-concept (McGuire): Specific aspects of self that are triggered by the features of the current situation. (Ex: Saying “I’m a young person” in a room where everyone else is elderly.) 3
Beaman et al. (1979) The self is social in at least two ways: Participants: Halloween trick-or-treaters Greeted at a researcher’s door and left alone to 1. The way we develop our self-conceptions help themselves to candy. Asked to take only one depends in part on our interactions with others. piece. 2. The situational context (which often includes IV: Full length mirror behind bowl or no mirror other people) can affect how we see ourselves DV: How much candy the child took at any given point in time. Results: 34% broke the rule when no mirror versus 12% broke the rule when there was a mirror. When people are self-focused, they tend to behave in line with socially accepted standards. Markus & Kitayama True or False? INDEPENDENT (individualism): 1. I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people. --Identity is personal, defined by individual traits and 2. At parties and other social gatherings, I do not goals. attempt to do or say things that others will like. --What matters: Me—personal achievement and 3. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe. fulfillment; my rights and liberties. 4. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics --Disapproves of conformity. about which I have almost no information. --Illustrative motto: “To thine own self be true” 5. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain --Cultures that support: Individualistic Western others. 6. I would probably make a good actor. INTERDEPENDENT (collectivism): 7. In a group of people I am rarely the center of --Identity is social; defined by connections with others. attention. --What matters: We—group goals and solidarity; our 8. In different situations and with different people, I social responsibilities and relationships. often act like very different persons. --Disapproves of egotism. 9. I am not particularly good at making other people --Illustrative motto: “No one is an island.” like me. --Cultures that support: Collectivistic Asian 10. I am not always the person I appear to be. 4
1 point if true to : 11. I would not change my opinions (or the way I 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 17, 18 do things) in order to please someone or win their or false to: favor. 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16 12. I have considered being an entertainer. 13. I have never been good at games like Mark Snyder: Self-Monitoring Scale charades or improvisational acting. Average score of N. American college students = 10-11 14. I have trouble changing my behavior to suit different people and different situations. High self-monitors: Especially like to change their 15. At a party, I let others keep the jokes and behavior and stated beliefs depending on who they are stories going. interacting with and what the situation demands. 16. I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite as well as I should. Low self-monitors: Respond more consistently from 17. I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with situation to situation on the basis of their existing a straight face (if for a right end). values. 18. I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them. Neither strategy is inherently good or bad. The self-concept is complex and multifaceted. Mechanisms of Self-Enhancement Universe of self-conceptions: all of the ways in which you might see yourself (actual self, hoped for self, Self-serving cognitions ideal self, etc.) Shepperd (1993) Asked college students about their performance Working self-concept: Includes core self-conceptions on the SAT. along with less central self-conceptions that may vary depending on the situational context. Findings: 1. Most students overestimated their actual score Self-esteem: Global positive or negative feelings about by about 17 points, and this was more the self. pronounced among students with lower scores. Attributions about exam grades when succeed or fail: 2. Most students with low SAT scores described Degree to which score reflects: their score as “inaccurate” and the test as Your ability “invalid.” Nevertheless, SATs predicted GPAs Situation (test was too hard) for both low and high scorers. 5
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