Opportunities for biofuel production on M ā ori land Donna Giltrap, Anne-Gaëlle Ausseil, Garth Harmsworth, Kevin Tate Manaaki Whenua, Landcare Research Private Bag 11052 Palmerston North
Biofuels Biofuels are fuels derived from land via recent plant or animal material (biomass). Depending on the initial feedstock and processes used, biomass can be transformed into a variety of gaseous or liquid fuels. If sustainably managed, biofuels are a source of renewable energy.
History of biofuels • Biomass has been burned for heat since pre-historic times (although not always efficiently or sustainably). • 1826 Samuel Morey developed an engine that ran on ethanol and turpentine. • 1908 Henry Ford designed the Model T that could run on gasoline, ethanol or a mixture of the two. • During the World Wars there was increased demand for biofuels • From the lates 1940s to the late 1970s the low price of fossil fuels reduced the market for biofuels • Concerns about security of supply and environmental impacts have renewed Using biomass for energy interest in biofuels. Some countries already have significant commercial biofuel is not a new concept. production.
Reasons for current interest in biofuels: • Energy security – uncertainty about future oil/gas supplies and costs. • International/national moves to curb greenhouse gas emissions (e.g. Kyoto protocol, UNFCC) • Diversification of land use. • Economic opportunities.
There are many types of biofuels Feedstocks Processes Wood Fermentation (Starch → ) Sugar → Ethanol (e.g. forestry arisings, wood (Cellulose → ) Sugar → Ethanol chips, short rotation coppicing) Esterification Oils + Methanol → “Biodiesel” + Glycerol Crops Pyrolysis (e.g. crops, straw, grasses, Woody material → “Bio-oil” + char + fuel gas husks and shells) Thermochemical gasification Solid dry fuel → Fuel gas (methane, hydrogen, Other Residues carbon monoxide mixture) (e.g. Municipal solid waste, sewage sludge, dairy Anaerobic digestion effluent, tallow, whey, used Wet organic matter → Methane (“natural gas”) cooking oil), algae Landfill gas Energy as a by-product vs Energy farming ?
International biofuel production Ethanol Country Ethanol Production Feedstock (billion litres, 2004) Brazil 15.5 Sugarcane United States 13.7 Corn China 3.7 Corn, wheat EU 2.3 Grains, sugar beet India 1.8 Sugarcane Australia 0.1 Grains, sugarcane, sweet sorghum
International biofuel production Ethanol production 2004 40% 37.0% 32.8% 35% Ethanol production (% total 30% 25% 20% 15% 9.0% 10% 5.5% 4.3% 5% 0.3% 0% Brazil US China EU India Australia
International biofuel production Biodiesel Country European Union In 2000 there were 15 commercial esterification sites and 535 million litres biodiesel produced in the EU. Biodiesel mainly produced from rapeseed (with some sunflower and safflower seed). United States 58 million litres biodiesel consumed in 2002. Produced from soybeans and recycled restaurant grease. Brazil In 2005 opened first major biodiesel refineries. Soyminas plant is capable of producing 12.4 million litres biodiesel/year. Australia Some biodiesel available commercially.
New Zealand’s Energy Situation New Zealand Total Primary Energy Supply, 2003 Gas 23.9% Coal 10.4% Oil Hydro 36.4% 11.4% Geothermal 11.0% Other renewable 6.9%
New Zealand’s Energy Situation (Figures for year ending 2003) Total primary energy supply = 749.6 PJ •71% Fossil fuel •29% Renewables Total domestic transport energy = 207.6 PJ Petrol = 3.6 billion litres (104.7 PJ) Diesel = 2.6 billion litres (94.0 PJ) NZ Renewable Energy Target of 2PJ renewable transport energy by 2012.
Biofuels in New Zealand •Pilot scale wood to ethanol plant built in Rotorua in 1979. •Fonterra currently produces 17-21 million litres/year ethanol from whey (mostly for export). •Argent Energy is investigating New Zealand’s biodiesel potential. New Zealand produces enough tallow to replace 6- 7% of current diesel demand if converted to biodiesel. However biofuels are not yet widely available in New Zealand.
Energy yields of selected crops Crop Gross energy yield Equivalent amount per tonne (GJ/dry of petrol (litres), tonne) 1 energy basis Lupins 20.7 714 Pasture 18.9 651 Peas 18.8 648 Maize (grain/stover) 19.0/18.1 655/624 Lucerne (Hay) 18.2 627 Winter green crop 18.1 624 Gorse 18.0 620 Straw residue 17.8 614 Fodder beet 17.7 610 Sugar beet 17.6 607 Macrocarpa 17.5 603 1 Does not account for energy cost of growing, harvesting and transporting crop.
Energy yields of selected crops Crop Net energy yield Equivalent amount per ha (GJ/ha) of petrol (litres), energy basis Fodder beet 363 12,500 Gorse and macrocarpa 285 9,800 Maize ex pasture 276 9,500 Maize ex maize 265 9,100 Winter green crop 207 7,100 Gorse 193 6,650 Macrocarpa 189 6,510 Lucerne (Hay) 189 6,510 Pasture 186 6,410 Lupins 159 5,480 Sugar beet 153 5,270 Peas 82 2,830 Straw residue 70 2,410
Can fuel crops be grown sustainably? Case study: Invermay Energy Farm Project, 1978 Three crops (maize, oats, kale) grown over a 2 year rotation. Biogas produced by anaerobic digestion. Digester effluent returned to fields as fertiliser.
After 6 years continuous cropping, very few significant differences in yield and soil biochemistry between conventionally fertiliser and digester effluent treatments. Squares = digester effluent; Crosses = inorganic fertiliser; Triangles = water only
Availability of suitable land Need to consider: • Soil types and climate matched to crop needs • Topography • Current land use • Proximity to processing plants • Not too fragmented • Other potential land uses • Sustainability
Landcare Research Ltd databases Database Name Contains Possible uses: Land environments of Land classification Suitable for regional New Zealand (LENZ) layers based on scale scoping climate, soil properties exercises. and landform. Land Resource Land use capability With expert Information System assessments, soil interpretation can be (NZLRI) properties, vegetation used to give more cover, pastoral and detailed assessment forestry production of land suitability for parameters. specific crops Site investigations can provide detailed assessment at the site scale.
Crop suitability example – Hokianga and Western Kaipara region
Land use capability classes LUC % of NZ Description class land area 1 0.7% Most versatile multiple-use land – virtually no limitations to arable use 2 4.55% Good land with slight limitations to arable use 3 9.22% Moderate limitations to arable use restricting crops able to be grown 4 10.5% Severe limitations to arable use. More suitable to pastoral and forestry. 5 0.8% Unsuitable for cropping. Pastoral and forestry. 6 28.1% Non-arable land. Moderate limitations and hazard under perennial vegetation cover. 7 21.4% With few exceptions can only support extensive grazing or erosion control forestry. 8 21.8% Very severe limitations or hazards for any agricultural use.
M ā ori Land “M ā ori land” is defined by Te Ture Whenua M ā ori Act 1993. This definition is used by the M ā ori Land Court whenever it is required to determine the status of M ā ori land. The status may be one of the following: •M ā ori freehold land: Land that, with very few exceptions, has not been out of M ā ori ownership. The M ā ori Land Court determines whether land is M ā ori freehold land. •M ā ori customary land: Land held by M ā ori in accordance with tikanga M ā ori. It has not been transferred into freehold title by the M ā ori Land Court, nor ceded to the Crown. Before 1840, all land was M ā ori customary land. Today, the exact amount is unknown but is believed to be extremely small. •General land owned by M ā ori: Land owned by five or more people, where the majority of the owners are M ā ori.
M ā ori land
M ā ori land by suitability class Most versatile land Class 1 Class 2 Other 0.3% 2.3% Limited cropping. Class 3 1.2% 4.9% Suitable for cropping, Class 4 pasture or forestry. 9.9% Class 8 Class 5 15.5% 0.4% Pastoral and forestry. Class 7 (May have moderate 31.7% limitations under perennial pasture) Class 6 33.7% Total M ā ori land area = 817 866.26 ha
M ā ori land and biofuels • 142 676 ha of M ā ori land has an LUC suitable for cropping - 21 190 ha is highly versatile land - 121 486 ha has moderate to severe limitations. • 278 870 ha of M ā ori land has an LUC that could support pasture or forestry for biofuels.
Other issues • Sustainable land management • Financial issues • Technical issues • Public perceptions
Sustainable land management • Erosion • Soil compaction • Nutrient depletion – could biofuel crops be used to remove surplus nutrients? • Appropriate crop rotations • Climate change/Kyoto protocol • Does the biofuel production process use more energy than it produces?
Financial issues • Economic feasibility needs to be assessed. • Need to invest in infrastructure! • Optimum scale of operation • Carbon tax in 2007: ~4c/litre petrol • Other potential land uses. • Other potential feedstock uses. Oil prices likely to continue to increase
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