CS4001: Computing, Society and Professionalism Sauvik Das | Assistant Professor Midterm Review October 3 rd , 2018
Ethics
What is ethics? “A branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct.” - Anonymous Wikipedia contributors
Difference between legal and ethical Laws formalize what people can and cannot do in society, while ethics are moral u standards that govern what people should or should not do In some instances, legal regulations prohibit people from carrying out certain tasks, u such as administering life-saving support, that would generally be considered morally permissible actions.
Relativism Morality is not a universal law, like gravity; it is not something that can be u observed and measured, so rational people cannot discover or try to understand it Subjective: We each create our own morality. Ethical debates are pointless, u because there is no “universal truth” Cultural: Individual societies and cultures can decide for themselves what’s u ’right’ and ‘wrong’ and other societies and cultures should stay out of it.
Utilitarianism Also called “consequentialism” u Principle of Utility (Greatest Happiness Principle) u u "An act is right (or wrong) to the extent that it increases (or decreases) the total happiness of all affected parties." The intention behind an act does not matter – only its consequences. u
Act Utilitarianism: The algorithm For each human act, calculate its utility: u u Sum benefits over all parties that benefit. u Sum costs over all parties that incur costs. u If total benefit > total cost, the act is “good”. Else, it’s “bad”.
Rule Utilitarianism Adopt moral rules which, if followed by everyone, will lead to the greatest u happiness u E.g., “Promises should be kept”, “Parents should take care of their children”, “Murder is not allowed under any circumstances”, etc.
Deontology Dictionary definition: “the theory or study of moral obligation” u u Normative ethical position that judges the morality of an action based on rules u From Greek root “deont” -> That which is binding Morality is based on reason u u An act is right iff it conforms to the relevant moral obligation; and it is wrong iff it violates the relevant moral obligation. Unlike utilitarianism: the consequences of an action are irrelevant to moral u evaluation
Kantianism Based on the writing of philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) u u People should be guided by universal moral laws. Must be based on reason. The only thing that is good without qualification is good will. u u Morality derived from this starting premise. A person has good will only if the motive of his or her action is based on moral u obligation, derived from universally valid norms.
The Categorical Imperative The Categorical Imperative in Kantianism is moral law that every moral agent u recognizes whenever accepting an act as morally obligatory. Two (equivalent) formulations of the Kantian Categorical Imperative. u
Categorical Imperative: Formulation One Act only from moral rules that you can at the same time will to be universal u moral laws. u In layman’s terms: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you Remember: Kant’s argument is not based on consequences. He argues that u breaking the categorical imperative is illogical / against reason.
Categorical Imperative: Formulation Two Act so that you always treat both yourself and other people as ends in u themselves and never only as a means to an end. u In layman’s terms: Treat others how you wish to be treated. Two formulations are thought to be equivalent to each other. u “Inherent” value of human beings vs. “instrumental” value of objects u
Perfect vs imperfect duties To help resolve conflicts between some rules, Kant made a distinction u between “perfect” and “imperfect” duties. Perfect duties must be followed always. u u “Thou shall nots,” (e.g., no stealing, no lying) u No exceptions Imperfect duties must be followed only if they do not conflict with perfect u duties. u Helping others u Cultivating your skills
Social contract theory Moral rules are “simply the rules that are necessary if we are to gain the u benefits of social living.” u Basic idea: Everyone agrees to give up some liberties (e.g., obey property rights) in order to reap the benefits of a civilized society We need two things: u u A set of moral rules to govern relations among citizens u A government capable of enforcing them
Rawl’s principles of justice Each person may claim a “fully adequate” number of basic rights and liberties u so long as these claims are consistent with everyone else having a claim to the same rights and liberties. u Examples: freedom of thought and speech, freedom of association, the right to be safe from harm, and the right to own property, Any social and economic inequalities must satisfy two conditions: u u They are associated with positions in society that everyone has a fair and equal opportunity to assume u They are ”to be of the greatest benefit to the least-advantaged members of society” (difference principle)
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Egocentric understanding of fairness based on individual need u u Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment orientation u Stage 2: Self-interest orientation Shared concept of fairness based in societal agreement u u Stage 3: Interpersonal accord and conformity u Stage 4: Authority and social-order maintenance Free-standing logic of equality and reciprocity u u Stage 5: Social contract orientation u Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
Gilligan reading Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s theory is overly “androcentric” u u Initially developed using only male participants Believed that Kohlberg’s stages over emphasized justice. Developed an alternative u “ethic of care” -- shift from “what is just” to “how to respond?” u Persons have varying degrees of dependence and interdependence on one another. u Those particularly vulnerable to one’s choices deserve extra consideration u Necessary to attend to contextual details of situations in order to safeguard and promote actual specific interests of affected parties. Proposed an alternative set of stages for women: u u L1: Orientation to individual survival u L2: Goodness as self-sacrifice u L3: Morality of non-violence
Stakeholder analysis Make a list of all the stakeholders involved. u u Try to balance the positive and negative impact on people Not a formal ethical framework, just a useful way of looking at things u
Virtue ethics One of the oldest normative ethical theories that has recently regained u popularity. u Roots in Plato and Aristotle Aristotle believed that the only way to fulfill one’s potential, and achieve u happiness, is to acquire virtues (one cannot be born with virtues). Anyone who attempts to be virtuous because they want their own happiness u has missed the point. Virtue is its own reward .
Applying Virtue Ethics Ask yourself, what would a virtuous person do in this situation? u The virtuous agent is motivated by emotion or inclination, not by rational u choice. "The fully virtuous do what they should without a struggle against contrary u desires; the continent have to control a desire or temptation to do otherwise."
Applying Virtue Ethics Phronesis, or practical wisdom: u u Practical wisdom is the knowledge or understanding that enables its possessor to “do the right thing” The practically wise agent has the capacity to recognize some features of a u situation as more important than others. u Personally disadvantageous nature of a certain action competes in importance with honesty or benevolence or justice
Ethics Learn not only the basics of the ethical frameworks, but their advantages, u disadvantages and how they differ (e.g., specifically in their application , in their rationale , etc.)
Arguments
Elements of an Argument An argument states a claim and supports it with reasons and evidence from u sources. When you make an argument, you become its proponent. u Counterarguments stand in opposition to your argument / claim. They are u arguments that try to explain why your argument is wrong. The person making the counterargument is your opponent .
Classical Arguments Patterned after persuasive speeches of ancient Greek and Roman orators. u Structure : u u Introduction u Presentation of writer’s position u Summary of opposing views u Response to opposing views u Conclusion
The rhetorical triangle Logos: appeal from logic u u E.g., Kantian categorical imperative and universalizing lying Ethos : appeal from character, authority, credibility u u E.g., “I have a Ph.D. in computer security, so you should trust me on topics related to that” Pathos: appeal from emotion, audience’s sympathy u u E.g., Charity donation commercials Kairos : appeal from opportunity / timing u
Issue questions and information questions Issue questions are the origin or arguments: Can usually be reasonably u answered in multiple different ways. u Is CS4001 an interesting and useful class? Information questions generally have one factual answer. u u How many students are registered in CS4001 this semester? To tell the difference: Can a simple gathering of facts answer it? u
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