Long-Term Memory Introduction Encoding Processes Levels (Depth) - PDF document

5/9/19 Long-Term Memory • Introduction • Encoding Processes – Levels (Depth) of Processing – Maintenance vs Elaborative Rehearsal – Self Reference Effect • Retrieval Processes – Retrieval Cues – Encoding Specificity Principle 1 Long-Term Memory • Explicit versus Implicit Memory • Multiple Memory Systems – Episodic – Semantic – Procedural • Expertise & Skilled Memory • Knowledge: Schemas & Scripts • Autobiographical Memory 2 Encoding Processes in LTM • Levels (Depth) of Processing • Self-Reference Effect 3 1

5/9/19 Levels of Processing Framework • Craik & Lockhart (1972) • Type of Processing – Physical (Shallow) Processing – Meaningful (Deep) Processing • Memory Trace = byproduct of processing • Deeper processing produces more durable traces 4 LOP Demonstration 5 6 2

5/9/19 Maintenance Rehearsal versus Elaborative Rehearsal 7 Research on LOP and Similar Themes • Tulving (1975) • Generation Effect (1978) – e.g. light d_ _ k (generation) vs. light dark (read) • Faces - e.g. Sporer (1991) 8 Self-Reference Effect • Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1997) • Process list of words: – Physical characteristics – Acoustic characteristics – Semantic characteristics – Self - (reference) • Robust effect • Symons & Johnson (1997) – Meta-analysis • Explanations 9 3

5/9/19 Rogers, et. al., 1977 10 Retrieval Processes • Retrieval Cues • Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP) -- Moscovitch & Craik (1975) 11 Encoding Specificity Principle • Godden & Baddeley – Scuba Diving Experiment (1975) • Remembering names – using faces as contextual cues • Imaginary contexts 12 4

5/9/19 Godden & Baddeley (1975) Testing Context Underwater On Land On Land Encoding Context Underwater Half of the participants (deep—sea divers) learned the test material while underwater; half learned while on land. Then, within each group, half were tested while underwater; half were tested on land. Where do we expect a retrieval advantage? 13 Learning Names using Faces as Cues 14 Geiselman & Glenny (1997) Encoding female voice male voice (Imagined) Test (Actual male female male female Speaker) 15 5

5/9/19 16 How can we use the Encoding Specificity Principle to improve memory for material? 17 Explicit vs. Implicit Memory 18 6

5/9/19 Study each of the words that appear Picture Custom Fellow Commerce Advice Motion Dozen Village Flower Vessel Kitchen Window Bookstore Number Reindeer 19 Explicit Memory Measures 20 Implicit Memory Measures Picture, Commerce, Motion, Village,Vessel,Window, Number, Reindeer, Custom, Fellow, Advice, Dozen, Flower, Kitchen, Bookstore 21 7

5/9/19 Explicit vs Implicit Measures of Memory • Explicit memory measures: – recall – recognition • Implicit memory measures: – Word fragment completion – Stem completion – Repetition priming • Role of conscious, deliberate recollection 22 The Critical Distinction • Explicit memory tasks require conscious, deliberate recollection of previous experiences • Implicit memory tasks do not require conscious recollection of previous events e.g., b_ _ k 23 Research with Amnesics • Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970) • Tasks explicit - recognition, recall implicit - mutilated word guessing - stem completion e.g. st_ _ _ • Replicated • Dissociation 24 8

5/9/19 Dissociation • A variable has an effect on one type of test, but little or no effect on another type of test • A variable has one type of effect if measured by Test A, but a different effect if measured by Test B 25 Research with Normal Adults • Levels of processing and the implicit / explicit distincion • Picture Superiority Effect • Current Status - explanations - applications 26 Levels of Processing: Explicit/Implict Tests truck Semantic Physical, perceptual (pleasant vs unpleasant) Task (# syllables or Upper/lower case?) Explicit Higher recall, ___ Memory Test recognition * Implicit ___ Higher--or at least Memory Test equal performance * (e.g. t_u_k) 27 9

5/9/19 Picture Superiority Effect Elephant versus. 1. Subjects view a series of pictures or a series of words 2. Subjects recall stimuli by writing down names of items -- recall of pictures is higher than recall of words. 28 Weldon & Roediger (1987) Picture Superiority Effect Encoding ‘FROG’ vs.  Test Recall Recall Compare Implicit vs. Explicit Measures Encoding ‘FROG’ vs. Recall word Recall word fragment fragment Test completion completion f r _ g f r _ g 29 30 10

5/9/19 Explanations • No agreed-upon explanation • Multiple memory systems – e.g. Tulving • Neuroscience account 31 Multiple Memory Systems 32 Tulving’s Theory of Multiple Memory Systems • Episodic • Semantic • Procedural 33 11

5/9/19 Expertise • Influence on LTM • Definition - consistent superior performance - deliberate practice - at least 10 years • Domain specific • 10-year rule 35 Context-Specific Nature of Expertise • Skilled memory effect • Chess -De Groot -Chase & Simon (1973): 5 second task typical vs. random positions • Similar effects in many domains: -basketball -x-rays -circuit diagrams, etc. • SF (digits only) 36 12

5/9/19 An Expert Waiter - JC • Ericsson (1985) • J.C. - 20 tops • Comparison of J.C. to college students • Critical difference = memory strategies and knowledge • Follow-up study (Crutcher, Ericsson, & Bauder) 37 t-bone rare baked potato blue cheese filet mignon sirloin well-done medium rice rice thousand island oil and vinegar 38 JC � s Strategies Temperature well done medium well medium medium rare rare Salad Dressings thousand island blue cheese tbo oil & vinegar 39 13

5/9/19 Characteristics of Experts 7. Skilled at predicting the difficulty of a task and at monitoring their progress on a task 8. Work hard at encoding each item or stimulus so that it’s distinct 40 General Knowledge 41 Schemas 1. Larger cognitive units 2. Packages of interrelated units 3. Used to interpret, encode, understand, and remember new instances 4. Provide expectations about what should occur (top - down) 5. Default values / parts - filled in when schema activated 6. Sometimes - errors 42 14

5/9/19 Schemas • Generalized, abstract knowledge structures • Memory for common, ordinary events • Variable instantiation • False memories • Face schemas • Room Schemas 43 Demonstration 44 45 15

5/9/19 Schemas and Memory Selection • Remember best info consistent with schema or inconsistent • Brewer & Treyons (1981) • Rojahn & Pettigrew (1992) • Incidental vs. Intentional learning 46 Script Demo 47 Scripts • Simple, well- structured sequence of events associated with a highly familiar activity • Schema vs. script • Recall of scripts – Different from conceptual categories (Barsalow & Sewell, 1985) – Script Identification - early vs. late (Trafimow and Wyer, 1993 48 16

5/9/19 Schemas and Memory Abstraction • Abstraction • Verbatim vs. Gist • Constructive Approach – Bransford & Franks (1971) – Holmes & Colleagues (1998) 49 50 51 17

5/9/19 Schemas and Inferences in Memory • Bartlett (1932) • Ebbinghaus vs. Bartlett • Interaction of prior knowledge and experience and formation of new memories • � War of the Ghosts � story • Initial vs. Delayed Recall 52 Autobiographical Memory 53 Autobiographical Memory • Memory for events and issues related to yourself • Naturally occurring events • Wide variety of topics • Ecological validity issue 54 18

5/9/19 Source Monitoring • Origin of a memory • Johnson (1997, 2002); Pansky et al., (2005) • Example: my idea or something I read or heard someone say • Plagiarizing – e.g. of song melodies 55 Eyewitness Testimony • The � gentleman bandit � (1979) • Identifying faces – Recognition accuracy • Time and attention • Reintz, et al. (1994, p 45) – Length of retention interval – Intervening info • Misleading post-event info 56 Misinformation Effect • Caused by misleading information given after viewing an earlier event • RI = retroactive inhibition or interference • Classic experiment - Loftus (1978) 57 19

5/9/19 Loftus (1978) Study Slides at Test: • Delay: 20 minutes to 1 week • Question Answering • Critical Question: consistent or inconsistent detail • Test: Select 1 of 2 slides matching previously-viewed slide 58 Loftus (1978) Results 59 20