Grouping Humans into Race in Population Grouping Humans into Race in Population Genomic Research: Genomic Research: Historical, Conceptual and Empirical , Conceptual and Empirical Historical Considerations Considerations Koffi N. Maglo Koffi N. Maglo Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy University of Cincinnati University of Cincinnati (CCTST Conference, March 13, 2015) (CCTST Conference, March 13, 2015)
Importance of Biological Systematic Importance of Biological Systematic Principles in Genomic Informatics Principles in Genomic Informatics “… In In some some [academic] [academic] programs, programs, systematics systematics has has been been “… eclipsed by by the the […] […] disciplines disciplines of of genomics genomics and and eclipsed bioinformatics, which which focus focus entirely entirely on on molecular molecular data. data. bioinformatics, These trends trends are are unfortunate unfortunate because because stronger stronger emphasis emphasis These on sound sound training training in in systematic systematic principles principles could could help help on forestall the the uncritical uncritical and and frequently frequently ill-conceived ill-conceived forestall proliferation of phylogenetic applications by proliferation of phylogenetic applications by [population] geneticists, geneticists, molecular molecular biologists biologists and and users users [population] of the the systematic systematic “toolbox”…” “toolbox”…” (Schuh (Schuh & & Brower Brower of 2009:19-21) 2009:19-21)
Million Biologically Real Human Races? Million Biologically Real Human Races? “If If we we look look at at enough enough genes, genes, the the genetic genetic distance distance “ between Ithaca Ithaca and and Albany Albany in in New New York York or or Pisa Pisa and and between Florence in in Italy Italy is is most most likely likely to to be be significant, significant, and and Florence therefore scientifically scientifically proven… proven… The The inhabitants inhabitants of of therefore Ithaca and and Albany Albany might might be be disappointed disappointed to to discover discover Ithaca that they they belong belong to to separate separate races. races. People People in in Pisa Pisa and and that Florence might might be be pleased pleased that that science science had had validated validated Florence their ancient ancient mutual mutual distrust distrust by by demonstrating demonstrating their their their genetic differences” (Cavalli-Sforza 2000:25). genetic differences” (Cavalli-Sforza 2000:25).
Four Questions (see Maglo 2010, 2011) Four Questions (see Maglo 2010, 2011) 1) The The natural/biological natural/biological reality reality question question : : did did the the 1) human evolutionary evolutionary history history lead lead to to a a natural natural human division of of our our species species into into subspecies, subspecies, the the so-called so-called division biological races? biological races? 2) The The correspondence correspondence question question : : do do genetic genetic taxa taxa 2) correspond to to racial racial identities identities defined defined at at a a correspond social/political level? social/political level? 3) The The utility utility question question : : d do o racial racial groupings groupings (genomic (genomic 3) or social) have clinical utility? or social) have clinical utility? 4) The The permissibility permissibility question question : : is is it it morally morally 4) permissible to use race in biomedicine? permissible to use race in biomedicine?
The Invention of R Racial Classification and acial Classification and The Invention of the Natural Reality Question the Natural Reality Question Francois Bernier (1620-1688), French physician, Francois Bernier (1620-1688), French physician, introduced the the concept concept of of race race in in the the classification classification of of introduced humans in in 1684 1684 in in his his essay essay “A “A New New Division Division of of the the Earth Earth humans according to to the the Different Different Species Species or or Races Races who who Inhabit Inhabit according it .” .” He He used used skin skin color color as as a a primary primary characteristic characteristic to to define define it human races. human races. Carolos Linnaeus Linnaeus (1707-1778), (1707-1778), Swedish Swedish botanist botanist and and Carolos naturalist acclaimed acclaimed for for his his hierarchical hierarchical biological biological naturalist classification system and binomial nomenclature, classification system and binomial nomenclature, recognized in in 1758 1758 four four human human “varieties” “varieties” as as Homo Homo recognized sapiens europaeus europaeus , , Homo Homo sapiens sapiens afer afer ; ; Homo Homo sapiens sapiens sapiens asiaticus , Homo sapiens , Homo sapiens americanus americanus asiaticus
Racial Classification and The Natural Racial Classification and The Natural Reality Question (cont’d) Reality Question (cont’d) Immanuel Kant Kant (1724-1804), (1724-1804), German German philosopher, philosopher, used used Immanuel Buffon’s rule rule (=interbreeding (=interbreeding resulting resulting in in fertile fertile Buffon’s offspring) to to affirm affirm in in 1777 1777 the the unity unity of of the the human human species species offspring) and to to demonstrate demonstrate that that human human races races are are not not “natural “natural and divisions” but artificial ones. divisions” but artificial ones. Yet Kant Kant claimed claimed likewise likewise that that skin skin color color corresponds corresponds to to Yet an intrinsic intrinsic property property and and provides provides a a necessary necessary and and an sufficient criterion criterion to to determine determine racial racial membership. membership. He He sufficient identified four human races. identified four human races.
Racial Classification and the Natural Racial Classification and the Natural Reality Question (cont’d) Reality Question (cont’d) Johann F Friedrich riedrich Blumenbach Blumenbach (1752-1840), (1752-1840), German German Johann physician and naturalist, combined multiple physician and naturalist, combined multiple characteristics in in [1781] [1781] 1795 1795 to to identify identify five five characteristics “continental” races but maintained that: “continental” races but maintained that: 1)Racial differences are due to environmental causes Racial differences are due to environmental causes 1) 2)Racial Racial groups groups are are not not discrete discrete but but gradate gradate into into each each 2) other. other. 3)Divisions Divisions of of humans humans into into races races are are not not natural natural but but 3) artificial. artificial. 4)Some Some racial racial categorizations categorizations may may however however be be more more 4) robust than others. robust than others.
Race Concept, Natural Classification and Race Concept, Natural Classification and Evolutionary Theory Evolutionary Theory Charles Darwin Darwin (1809-1882), (1809-1882), British British naturalist naturalist and and the the Charles author of of the the Origin Origin of of Species Species (1859) (1859) and and the the author evolutionary theory, theory, claimed claimed in in 1871 1871 in in his his essay essay the the evolutionary Descent of Man that: that: Descent of Man 1)Characteristics Characteristics used used to to classify classify humans humans are are 1) superficial. superficial. 2)Racial Racial classifications classifications are are meaningless meaningless because because they they 2) do not map evolutionary relationships. do not map evolutionary relationships. 3)The The race race concept concept should should be be abandoned abandoned in in human human 3) classification in favor of the sub-species concept. classification in favor of the sub-species concept.
Race Concept, Natural Reality, and Race Concept, Natural Reality, and Darwinian Classification Darwinian Classification In phylogenetic systematics and evolutionary In phylogenetic systematics and evolutionary classification, a a grouping grouping of of organisms organisms is is considered considered classification, real or natural if it meets the following criteria: real or natural if it meets the following criteria: • Common Common descent (phylogenetic/cladistic => • descent (phylogenetic/cladistic => monophyletic grouping grouping = = comprises comprises all all and and only only the the monophyletic offspring of a common ancestor) offspring of a common ancestor) 1) Genetic Genetic similarity/degree similarity/degree of of differentiation differentiation 1) (similarity due to shared ancestry) (similarity due to shared ancestry)
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