Experience and Learning Experience and Learning A Psychological Point of View A Psychological Point of View Gerhard Weber Gerhard Weber Department of Psychology Department of Psychology University of Education Freiburg University of Education Freiburg Overview Overview � Introduction Introduction � � Psychological Theories of Learning Psychological Theories of Learning � � Storage and Retrieval of Information Storage and Retrieval of Information � � Neural Networks Neural Networks � � Analogies Analogies � � Concluding Remarks Concluding Remarks � 1
Introduction Introduction � Experience Experience - - the basis of learning the basis of learning � � Experience Experience - - not only external experiences not only external experiences � � Humans are experts in learning from Humans are experts in learning from � experiences experiences � But But- - why do humans fail so often? why do humans fail so often? � Theories of Learning Theories of Learning � Behavioral Learning Theories Behavioral Learning Theories � � Associative Learning Associative Learning � � Instrumental learning Instrumental learning � � Cognitive Learning Theories Cognitive Learning Theories � � Piaget’s Learning Theory Piaget’s Learning Theory � � Learning by Imitation Learning by Imitation � � Schema Theories Schema Theories � � Anderson’s ACT Theory Anderson’s ACT Theory � � Schank’s Dynamic Memory Schank’s Dynamic Memory � 2
Behavioral Learning Theories Behavioral Learning Theories � Associative Learning Associative Learning � � Association of new stimuli with old responses Association of new stimuli with old responses � � Principle of contiguity Principle of contiguity � � The Pavlov Example The Pavlov Example � � No new behavior learned No new behavior learned � � No assumption about knowledge structures No assumption about knowledge structures � Behavioral Learning Theories Behavioral Learning Theories � Instrumental Learning Instrumental Learning � � Behavior followed by pleasant (positive) Behavior followed by pleasant (positive) � consequences (reinforcement) will be shown more consequences (reinforcement) will be shown more often often � Behavior followed by unpleasant (negative) Behavior followed by unpleasant (negative) � consequences will be shown less often. consequences will be shown less often. � Stimuli can trigger behavior Stimuli can trigger behavior � � Discrimination and generalization Discrimination and generalization � � New behavior can be learned step by step New behavior can be learned step by step � � No assumption about knowledge structures No assumption about knowledge structures � 3
Cognitive Learning Theories Cognitive Learning Theories � Social Social- -Cognitive Learning Theory (Bandura) Cognitive Learning Theory (Bandura) � � Learning by observation and imitation Learning by observation and imitation � � Humans can learn by observing a model Humans can learn by observing a model � � Knowledge about the behavior to be performed is Knowledge about the behavior to be performed is � stored and, therefore, learned stored and, therefore, learned � Performance depends on reinforcement of the model Performance depends on reinforcement of the model � and/or on the expected reinforcement and/or on the expected reinforcement � Knowledge structures required, but no specific Knowledge structures required, but no specific � assumptions assumptions Cognitive Learning Theories Cognitive Learning Theories � Equilibration Theory (Piaget) Equilibration Theory (Piaget) � � Learning consists of creating and modifying cognitive Learning consists of creating and modifying cognitive � structures structures � Assimilation Assimilation � of new experiences to already existing cognitive of new experiences to already existing cognitive structures structures � A cognitive conflict happens if new experiences A cognitive conflict happens if new experiences � cannot be assimilated cannot be assimilated � Accommodation Accommodation � of already existing structures to new experiences of already existing structures to new experiences 4
Cognitive Learning Theories Cognitive Learning Theories � Schema Theory (Rumelhart and Ortony) Schema Theory (Rumelhart and Ortony) � � Schemata are devices for remembering that are Schemata are devices for remembering that are � functioning in a way to optimize the adaptation of data functioning in a way to optimize the adaptation of data � Schemata contain variables Schemata contain variables � � Schemata can be embedded Schemata can be embedded � � Schemata represent knowledge on all levels of Schemata represent knowledge on all levels of � abstraction abstraction � Schemata represent knowledge, not definitions Schemata represent knowledge, not definitions � � Schemata are active processes Schemata are active processes � Cognitive Learning Theories Cognitive Learning Theories � The ACT Theory (Anderson) The ACT Theory (Anderson) � � Unique theory of mind Unique theory of mind � � 3 basic assumptions 3 basic assumptions � � Declarative and procedural memory Declarative and procedural memory � � Chunks are the basic units in declarative memory Chunks are the basic units in declarative memory � � Productions are the basic units in procedural memory Productions are the basic units in procedural memory � 5
The ACT Theory The ACT Theory � Declarative Memory Declarative Memory � � Declarative information is represented as chunks Declarative information is represented as chunks � � New declarative knowledge will be added to memory New declarative knowledge will be added to memory � chunk- chunk -wise wise � Limited number of elements in a chunk Limited number of elements in a chunk � � Chunks have figural features: different components Chunks have figural features: different components � may play different roles may play different roles � Propositions Propositions � � Linear sequences Linear sequences � � Spatial configurations Spatial configurations � � Chunks are organized hierarchically Chunks are organized hierarchically � � Schema Schema- -like structures like structures � The ACT Theory The ACT Theory � Procedural Memory Procedural Memory � is a production system with is a production system with � Production rules Production rules � � Production interpreter Production interpreter � � Conflict resolution mechanism Conflict resolution mechanism � 6
Learning in ACT Learning in ACT � Declarative Memory Declarative Memory � � New chunks are added New chunks are added � � Change of the association strength of chunks Change of the association strength of chunks � � Strength increases with successful retrieval Strength increases with successful retrieval � � Procedural Memory Procedural Memory � � Strength of production rules (tuning) Strength of production rules (tuning) � � Increases with successful application of the rule Increases with successful application of the rule � � Decreases if the application of a production rule fails Decreases if the application of a production rule fails � � Generalization Generalization � � Specialization Specialization � � Neural implementation of the learning Neural implementation of the learning � mechanisms mechanisms Cognitive Learning Theories Cognitive Learning Theories � Dynamic Memory (Schank) Dynamic Memory (Schank) � � Contrast to rule Contrast to rule- -based and expert systems based and expert systems � � Creativity and Thinking Creativity and Thinking � � Problem solving is understanding and explanation Problem solving is understanding and explanation � � Rule Rule- -based solutions are too time consuming based solutions are too time consuming � � The interpretation of similar scripts solves the goal in The interpretation of similar scripts solves the goal in � most cases in the daily practice most cases in the daily practice 7
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