[PDF] - CSCW Issues and Theory Ov erview computer systems ha v e PDF Document

SLIDE 1 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (1) CSCW Issues and Theory Ov erview A l l computer systems ha v e group impact : : : not just group w are Ignoring this leads to the failure

f

systems W e lo

k

at sev eral lev els, from min utiae to large scale con text:

face-to-face

comm unication

con

v ersation

text

based comm unication

group

w

rking
rganizational

issues

SLIDE 2 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (2) F ace-to-face comm unication

Most

primitiv e and m ust subtle form

f

comm unication

Often

seen as the paradigm for computer mediated comm unication? T ransfer eects

carry

exp ectations in to electronic media sometimes with disastrous results ma y in terpret failure as rudeness

f

colleague e.g., p ersonal sp ac e video ma y destro y m utual impression

f

distance happily the `glass w all' eect helps

SLIDE 3 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (3) Ey e con tact

to

con v ey in terest and establish so cial presence

video

ma y sp

il

direct ey e con tact (recall video tunnel, Ch. 13)

but

p

r

qualit y video b etter than audio

nly

Gestures and b

dy

language

m

uc h

f
ur

comm unication is through

ur

b

dies
gesture

(and ey e gaze) used for deictic r efer enc e

head

and shoulders video loses this So : : : close fo cus for ey e con tact

r

wide fo cus for b

dy

language?

SLIDE 4 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (4) Bac k c hannels Alison: Do y

u

fancy that lm : : : err 1 : : : `The Green' um 2 : : : it starts at eigh t. Brian: Great! Not just the w

rds!

Bac k c hannel resp

nses

from Brian at 1 and 2 quizzical at 1 armativ e at 2 Bac k c hannels include: no ds and grimaces shrugs

f

the shoulders grun ts and raised ey ebro ws Utterance b egins v ague then sharp ens up just enough

SLIDE 5 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (5) Bac k c hannels I I Restricti ng media restricts bac k c hannels video | loss

f

b

dy

language audio | loss

f

facial expression half duplex | lose most v

ice

bac k c hannel resp

nses

text based | nothing left! Bac k c hannels used for turn-taking:

sp

eak er

ers

the

r

(fraction

f

a second gap)

listener

r e quests the

r

(facial expression, small noise) Grun ts, `um's and `ah's, can b e used b y the:

listener

to claim the

r
sp

eak er to hold the

r

but

ften

to

quiet

for half-duplex c hannels T rans-con tinen tal conferences { sp ecial problems

lag

can exceed the turn taking gap leads to a monologue!

SLIDE 6 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (6) Basic con v ersational structure Alison: Do y

u

fancy that lm Brian: the uh (500 ms) with the blac k cat | `The Green whatsit' Alison: y eah, go at uh : : : (lo

ks

at watch | 1.2 s): : : 20 to? Brian: sure Smallest unit is the utter anc e T urn taking = ) utterances usually alternate Simplest structure | adjac ency p air Adjacency pairs ma y nest; Brian: Do y

u

w an t some gateau? Alison: is it v ery fattening? Brian: y es, v ery Alison: and lots

f

c ho colate? Brian: masses Alison: I'll ha v e a big slice then. Structure is: A-x, B-y , A-y , B-z, A-z, B-x Inner pairs

ften

for clarication But, try analysing the rst transcript in detail!

SLIDE 7 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (7) Con text in con v ersation Utterances are highly am biguous W e use c

ntext

to disambiguate Brian: (p

ints)

that p

st

is leaning a bit Alison: that's the

ne

y

u

put in Tw

t

yp es

f

con text: external con text reference to the en vironmen t e.g., Brian's `that' | the thing p

in

ted to deictic r efer enc e in ternal con text reference to the previous con v ersation e.g., Alison's `that' | the last thing sp

k

en

f

Often con textual utterances in v

lv

e indexic als: that, this, he, she, it these ma y b e used for in ternal

r

external con text Also descriptiv e phrases ma y b e used: external: `the c

rner

p

st

is le aning a bit' in ternal: `the p

st

you mentione d'

SLIDE 8 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (8) Common Ground

Resolving

con text dep ends

n

meaning = ) participan ts m ust share meaning so m ust ha v e shared kno wledge

Con

v ersation constan tly negotiates meaning pro cess called gr

unding

Alison: So, y

u

turn righ t b eside the riv er. Brian: past the pub. Alison: y eah : : :

Eac

h utterance is assumed to b e: r elevant | furthers the curren t topic helpful | comprehensible to listener

SLIDE 9 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (9) F

cus

and breakdo wn Con text resolv ed relativ e to curren t dialo gue fo cus Alison: Oh, lo

k

at y

ur

roses : : : Brian: mmm, but I'v e had trouble with greeny . Alison: they're the sym b

l
f

the English summer. Brian: greeny? Alison: no roses silly! T racing topics is

ne

w a y to analyse con v ersation. Alison b egins | topic is roses Brian shifts topic to greeny Alison misses shift in fo cus : : : br e akdown Breakdo wn happ ens at all lev els: topic, indexicals, gesture Breakdo wns are frequen t, but r e dundancy mak es detection easy (Brian cannot in terpret `they'r e : : : summer') p eople v ery go

d

at r ep air (Brain and Alison quic kly restore shared fo cus) Electronic media ma y lose some redundancy = ) breakdo wn more sev ere

SLIDE 10 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (10) Sp eec h act theory

A

sp ecic form

f

c

nversational

analysis

Utterances

c haracterised b y what they do, : : : they are acts e.g., `I'm h ungry' pr

p
sitional

me aning | h unger in tended eect | `get me some fo

d'

Basic con v ersational act the il lo cutionary p

int:

promises, requests, declarations, : : : Sp eec h acts need not b e sp

k

en e.g., silence

ften

in terpreted as acceptance : : : Generic patterns

f

acts can b e iden tied Con v ersation for action (CfA) regarded as cen tral Basis for group w are to

l

Co

r

dinator

structured

email system

users

m ust t within CfA structure

not

lik ed b y users!

SLIDE 11 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (11) Con v ersations for action

A:Request B:Promise B:Assert A:Declare A:Decline B:Reject A:Withdraw A:Reject B:Withdraw A:Accept B:Renege A:Withdraw A:Withdraw B:Counter A:Counter

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Circles

represen t `states' in the con v ersation

Arcs

represen t utterances (sp eec h acts) Simplest route 1{5: Alison: ha v e y

u

got the mark et surv ey

n

c ho colate mousse? request Brian: sure promise Brian: there y

u

are assert Alison: thanks declare More complex routes p

ssible,

e.g., 1{2{6{3: : : Alison: ha v e y

u

got : : : request Brian: I'v e

nly

got the summary gures coun ter Alison: that'll do accept

SLIDE 12 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (12) T ext based comm unication Most common media for asynchr

nous

group w are exceptions: v

ice

mail, answ erphones F amiliar medium, similar to pap er letters but, electronic text ma y act as sp eec h substitute! T yp es

f

electronic text: discrete directed messages, no structure linear messages added (in temp

ral
rder)

non-linear h yp ertext link ages spatial t w

dimensional

arrangemen t In addition, link ages ma y exist to

ther

artefacts (x 13.6.3) Most

b

vious loss, no facial expression

r

b

dy

language

w

eak b ack channels So, dicult to con v ey:

ae

ctive state | happ y , sad, : : :

il

lo cutionary for c e | urgen t, imp

rtan

t, : : : P articipan ts comp ensate b y `aming' and smilies ;-)

SLIDE 13 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (13) Example text based `Conferencer'

Q

P I N B O A R D

T O M Their Address, Some Street, Anytown T O M Our Address, Some Street, Anytown

C O M P O S I T I O N B O X

I’ll just put a name areas in

SEND LEAVE

LETTER

TOM : HAS STARTED A NEW PRIVATE CONFERENCE DICK : HAS JOINED THE CONFERENCE HARRY : HAS JOINED THE CONFERENCE DICK : I really think we ought to agree on a letter format TOM : Yes, it’s important that we make the rght impression HARRY : okay well let’s start with the address DICK : whose? HARRY : ours in the top right, theirs on the left below TOM : okay I’ll write that in the pinboard HARRY : How amny paragraphs should a letter have? DICK : A minimum of two HARRY : We’ve forgotten the Dear Sir bit TOM : I’ll put that in HARRY : Now all we need is the Sign off

HARRY DICK

PARTICIPANT LIST

TOM

H A R R Y first paragraph T O M Dear Sir/Madam

Mr. A Name

PIN D I C K Yours faithfully, H A R R Y second paragraph EDIT D E L E T E

LHS | line ar con v ersation area RHS | sp atial sim ulated pin b

ard

Note separate `comp

sition

b

x'
transcript
nly

up dated when con tribution `sen t'

em

gran ularit y is the con tribution Pin b

ard

has similar gran ularit y

`cards'
nly

app ear

n
ther

participan ts' screens when edit/creation is conrmed

SLIDE 14 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (14) Grounding constrain ts

Establishing

common ground dep ends

n

gr

unding

c

nstr

aints cotemp

ralit

y | instan t feedthrough sim ultaneit y | sp eaking together sequence | utterances

rdered
Often

w eak er in text based comm unication e.g., loss

f

sequence in linear text: net w

rk

dela ys

r

coarse gran ularit y = )

verlap

1. Bethan: ho w man y should b e in the group? 2. Ro w ena: ma yb e this could b e

ne
f

the 4 strongest reasons 3. Ro w ena: please clarify what y

u

mean 4. Bethan: I agree 5. Ro w ena: hang

n

6. Ro w ena: Bethan what did y

u

mean?

Message

pairs 1&2 and 3&4 comp

sed

sim ultaneously i.e., lac k

f

c

mmon

exp erienc e Ro w ena: 2 1 3 4 5 6 Bethan: 1 2 4 3 5 6

Ab
v

e sho ws breakdo wn

f

turn-taking result

f

p

r

bac k c hannels

SLIDE 15 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (15) Main taining con text Recall c

ntext

w as essen tial for disam biguation T ext loses external con text, hence deixis linking to shared

b

jects can help 1. Alison: Brian's got some lo v ely roses 2. Brian: I'm afraid they're co v ered in greeny 3. Clarise: I'v e seen them, they're b eautiful Both (2) and (3) resp

nd

to (1) but tr anscript suggests greeny are b eautiful Hyp ertext can main tain `parallel' con v ersations

1. Alison:

Brian’s got some lovely roses

2. Brian:

I’m afraid they’re covered in greenfly

3. Clarise:

I’ve seen them they’re beautiful

4. Clarise:

have you tried companion planting?

SLIDE 16 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (16) P ace and gran ularit y Pac e

f

con v ersation | the rate

f

turn taking face-to-face | ev ery few seconds telephone | half a min ute email | hours

r

da ys face-to-face con v ersation is highly in teractiv e initia l utterance is v ague feedbac k giv es cues for comprehension lo w er pace = ) less feedbac k = ) less in teractiv e Coping strategies attempt to increase gran ularit y:

e

agerness | lo

king

ahead in the con v ersation game Brian: Lik e a cup

f

tea? Milk

r

lemon?

multiplexing

| sev eral topics in

ne

utterance Alison: No thanks. I lo v e y

ur

roses.

SLIDE 17 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (17) The Con v ersation Game

. . . . . .

Alison’s turn Brian’s turn Alison’s turn Brian’s turn

Alison: nice weather for the time of year Alison: Oh, look at your roses Brian: the red ones are my favourite Brian: mmm, but I’ve had trouble with greenfly Alison: they’re the symbol of the English summer Alison: they’re the universal sign of love Alison: have you tried companion planting? Brian: talking of love . . . Brian: thanks, I’ll try that next year

Con v ersation is lik e a game Linear text follo ws

ne

path through it P articipan ts c ho

se

the path b y their utterances Hyp ertext can follo w sev eral paths at

nce

SLIDE 18 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (18) Group dynamics W

rk

groups constan tly c hange:

in

structure

in

size Sev eral group w are systems ha v e explicit r^

les

But r^

les

dep end

n

con text and time e.g., M.D. do wn mine under authorit y

f

foreman and ma y not reect duties e.g., sub ject

f

biograph y , author, but no w writer So cial structure ma y c hange: demo cratic, auto cratic, : : : and group ma y fragmen t in to sub-groups Group w are systems rarely ac hiev e this exibili t y Groups also c hange in comp

sition

= ) new mem b ers m ust b e able to `catc h up'

SLIDE 19 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (19) Ph ysical en vironmen t F ace-to-face w

rking

radically aected b y la y

ut
f

w

rkplace

e.g., meeting ro

ms:

recessed terminals reduce visual impact in w ard facing to encourage ey e con tact dieren t p

wer

p

sitions

(see g. 14.7) T raditional cognitiv e psyc hology in the he ad Distribute d c

gnition

suggests w e lo

k

to the world Thinking tak es place in in teraction with

ther

p eople and ph ysical en vironmen t implications for group w

rk:

imp

rtance
f

me diating r epr esentations group kno wledge greater than sum

f

parts design fo cus

n

external represen tation

SLIDE 20 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (20) Exp erimen tal studies

n

groups More dicult than single-user exp erimen ts

Sub

ject groups larger n um b er

f

sub jects = ) more exp ensiv e longer time to `settle do wn' ev en more v ariation! dicult to timetable so : : :

ften
nly

three

r

four groups

the

task m ust encourage co

p

eration p erhaps in v

lv

e m ultiple c hannels

ptions:
creativ

e task e.g., `write a short r ep

rt
n

: : : '

decision

games e.g., desert surviv al task

con

trol task e.g., ARKola b

ttling

plan t

SLIDE 21 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (21) Exp erimen tal studies

n

groups (ctd.)

data

gathering sev eral video cameras + direct logging

f

application problems:

sync

hronisation

sheer

v

lume!
ne

solution:

record

from eac h p ersp ectiv e

analysis

N.B. v ast v ariation b et w een groups solutions:

within

groups exp erimen ts

micro-analysis

(e.g., gaps in sp eec h)

anecdotal

and qualitati v e analysis lo

k

at in teractions b et w een group and media con trolled exp erimen ts ma y `w aste' resources!

SLIDE 22 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (22) Field studies Exp erimen ts dominated b y group formation Field studies more realistic: distribute d c

gnition

= ) w

rk

studied in con text real action is situate d action ph ysical and so cial en vironmen t b

th

crucial Con trast: psyc hology | con trolled exp erimen t so ciology and an throp

logy

|

p

en study and ric h data Ethno gr aphy v ery inuen tial: a form

f

an throp

logical

study with sp ecial fo cus

n

so cial relationships do es not en ter activ ely in to situation seeks to understand so cial culture un biased and

p

en ended Con trast with p articip atory design In participatory design: w

rk

ers en ter in to design con text In ethnograph y (as used for design): designer en ters in to w

rk

con text Both mak e w

rk

ers feel v alued in design hence encourage w

rk

ers to `o wn' the pro ducts

SLIDE 23 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (23) Organisational issues Organisational factors can mak e

r

break group w are

Studying

the w

rk

group is not sucien t an y system is used within a wider con text and the crucial p eople need not b e direct users

Befor

e installi ng a new system, the designer m ust understand:

who

b enets

who

puts in eort

the

balance

f

p

w

er in the

rganisation
and

ho w it will b e aected

Ev

en when group w are is successful it ma y b e dicult to measure that success

SLIDE 24 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (24) Benets for all? Disprop

rtionate

eort who puts in the eort 6= who gets the b enet Example: shared diary: eort: secretaries and sub

rdinates,

en ter data b enet: manager easy to arrange meetings result: falls in to disuse Solutions: co erce use ! design in symmetry F ree rider problem no bias, but still problem p

ssible

to get b enet without doing w

rk

if ev ery

ne

do es it, system falls in to disuse Example: electronic conferences { can read but nev er con tribute Solutions: strict proto cols (e.g., round robin) increase visibility | rely

n

so cial pressure

SLIDE 25 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (25) Critical mass Early telephone system: few subscrib ers | no

ne

to ring lots

f

subscrib ers | nev er stops ringing! Electronic comm unications similar: b enet / n um b er

f

subscrib ers early users ha v e negativ e cost/b enet need critic al mass to giv e net b enets Ho w to get started? lo

k

for cliques to form core user base design to b enet an initial small user base

number of users benefits of use cost of use critical mass

SLIDE 26 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (26) Conict and p

w

er CSCW ? = computer supp

rted

c

p

er ative w

rk
p

eople and groups ha v e conicting goals

systems

assuming co

p

eration will fail! Example: computerise sto c k con trol sto c kman lo

ses

con trol

f

information = ) sub v erts the system

iden

tify stakeholders | not just the users Group w are aects

rganisational

structures

comm

unication structures reect line managemen t

email

| cross-organisational comm unication disenfranc hises lo w er managemen t = ) disaected sta and `sab

tage'
T

ec hnology c an b e used to c hange managemen t st yle and p

w

er structures

but

need to kno w that is what w e are doing

and

more

ften

an acciden t !

SLIDE 27 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (27) In visible w

rk

ers T elecomm unications impro v emen ts allo w:

neigh

b

urho
d

w

rk

cen tres

home-based

tele-w

rking

Man y ecological and economic b enets

reduce

car tra v el

exible

family commitmen ts but:

`managemen

t b y presence' do esn't w

rk
presence

increases p erceiv ed w

rth

problems for promotion Barriers to tele-w

rking

are managerial/so cial not tec hnological

SLIDE 28 Human{Com puter In teraction, Pren tice Hall A. Dix, J. Finla y , G. Ab

wd

and R. Beale c

1993

Computer{Supp

rted

Co

p

erativ e W

rk

Chapter 14 (28) Ev aluating the b enets

f

group w are Assuming w e ha v e a v

ided

the pitfalls! Ho w do w e measure

ur

success?

job

satisfaction and information

w

{ hard to measure

economic

b enet { diuse throughout

rganisation

But : : : costs

f

hardw are and soft w are {

nly

to

b

vious P erhaps w e ha v e to rely

n

h yp e!