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CS 3700 Networks and Distributed Systems Network Layer (Putting - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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CS 3700 Networks and Distributed Systems Network Layer (Putting the Net in Internet) Revised 10/3/19 Network Layer 2 Function: Route packets end-to-end on a Application network, through multiple hops Key challenge:

  1. Class Sizes (Wed ends here) 15 Class Prefix Network Number of Classes Hosts per Class Bits Bits A 1 7 2 7 – 2 = 126 2 24 – 2 = 16,777,214 (0 and 127 are reserved) (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) B 2 14 2 14 = 16,398 2 16 – 2 = 65,534 (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) C 3 21 2 21 = 2,097,512 2 8 – 2 = 254 (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) Total: 2,114,036

  2. Class Sizes (Wed ends here) 15 Class Prefix Network Number of Classes Hosts per Class Bits Bits A 1 7 2 7 – 2 = 126 2 24 – 2 = 16,777,214 (0 and 127 are reserved) (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) B 2 14 2 14 = 16,398 2 16 – 2 = 65,534 (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) C 3 21 2 21 = 2,097,512 2 8 – 2 = 254 (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) Total: 2,114,036

  3. Class Sizes (Wed ends here) 15 Class Prefix Network Number of Classes Hosts per Class Bits Bits A 1 7 2 7 – 2 = 126 2 24 – 2 = 16,777,214 (0 and 127 are reserved) (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) B 2 14 2 14 = 16,398 2 16 – 2 = 65,534 (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) C 3 21 2 21 = 2,097,512 2 8 – 2 = 254 (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) Total: 2,114,036

  4. Class Sizes (Wed ends here) 15 Class Prefix Network Number of Classes Hosts per Class Bits Bits A 1 7 2 7 – 2 = 126 2 24 – 2 = 16,777,214 (0 and 127 are reserved) (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) B 2 14 2 14 = 16,398 2 16 – 2 = 65,534 (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) C 3 21 2 21 = 2,097,512 2 8 – 2 = 254 (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) Total: 2,114,036 Too many network IDs

  5. Class Sizes (Wed ends here) 15 Way too big Class Prefix Network Number of Classes Hosts per Class Bits Bits A 1 7 2 7 – 2 = 126 2 24 – 2 = 16,777,214 (0 and 127 are reserved) (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) B 2 14 2 14 = 16,398 2 16 – 2 = 65,534 (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) C 3 21 2 21 = 2,097,512 2 8 – 2 = 254 (All 0 and all 1 are reserved) Total: 2,114,036 Too many Too small to be network IDs useful

  6. Subnets 16 � Problem: need to break up large A and B classes � Solution: add another layer to the hierarchy � From the outside, appears to be a single network ■ Only 1 entry in routing tables � Internally, manage multiple subnetworks ■ Split the address range using a subnet mask Subnet Mask is 255.255.192.0 Pfx Ntwk Subnet Host 11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000 Subnet Mask:

  7. Subnet Example 17 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 network: Result: 10110101 11011101 00000000 00000000

  8. 10 means this is a Subnet Example class B network 17 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 network: Result: 10110101 11011101 00000000 00000000

  9. Class B uses 16 bits total 10 means this is a Subnet Example for the network name class B network 17 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 network: Result: 10110101 11011101 00000000 00000000

  10. Class B uses 16 bits total 10 means this is a Subnet Example for the network name class B network 17 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 network: Result: 10110101 11011101 00000000 00000000 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000 subnetwork: Result: 10110101 11011101 01000000 00000000

  11. Class B uses 16 bits total 10 means this is a Subnet Example for the network name class B network 17 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 network: Result: 10110101 11011101 00000000 00000000 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000 subnetwork: Result: 10110101 11011101 01000000 00000000 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & ~(11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000) host: Result: 00000000 00000000 00010100 01110010

  12. Class B uses 16 bits total 10 means this is a Subnet Example for the network name class B network 17 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 Subnet mask is network: 255.255.192.0 Result: 10110101 11011101 00000000 00000000 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000 subnetwork: Result: 10110101 11011101 01000000 00000000 IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010 � Extract Subnet Mask: & ~(11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000) host: Result: 00000000 00000000 00010100 01110010

  13. N-Level Subnet Hierarchy 18 Pfx Network Subnet Host … … …

  14. N-Level Subnet Hierarchy 18 Pfx Network Subnet Host … … …

  15. N-Level Subnet Hierarchy 18 Pfx Network Subnet Host … … …

  16. N-Level Subnet Hierarchy 18 Pfx Network Subnet Host … … …

  17. N-Level Subnet Hierarchy 18 Pfx Network Subnet Host … … Subtree size determined … by length of subnet mask

  18. N-Level Subnet Hierarchy 18 Pfx Network Subnet Host … • Tree does not have a fixed depth … • Increasingly specific subnet masks Subtree size determined … by length of subnet mask

  19. Example Routing Table 19 Address Prefix Subnet Mask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 Port 4 ******** ******** ******** ******** 18.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 Port 2 00010010 ******** ******** ******** 128.42.0.0 255.255.0.0 Port 3 10000000 00101010 ******** ******** 128.42.128.0 255.255.128.0 Port 5 10000000 00101010 1******* ******** 128.42.222.0 255.255.255.0 Port 1 10000000 00101010 11011110 ********

  20. Example Routing Table 19 Address Prefix Subnet Mask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 Port 4 ******** ******** ******** ******** 18.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 Port 2 00010010 ******** ******** ******** 128.42.0.0 255.255.0.0 Port 3 10000000 00101010 ******** ******** 128.42.128.0 255.255.128.0 Port 5 10000000 00101010 1******* ******** 128.42.222.0 255.255.255.0 Port 1 10000000 00101010 11011110 ******** � Question: 128.42.222.198 matches four rows � Which router do we forward to?

  21. Example Routing Table 19 Address Prefix Subnet Mask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 Port 4 ******** ******** ******** ******** 18.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 Port 2 00010010 ******** ******** ******** 128.42.0.0 255.255.0.0 Port 3 10000000 00101010 ******** ******** 128.42.128.0 255.255.128.0 Port 5 10000000 00101010 1******* ******** 128.42.222.0 255.255.255.0 Port 1 10000000 00101010 11011110 ******** � Question: 128.42.222.198 matches four rows � Which router do we forward to? � Longest prefix matching � Use the row with the longest number of 1’s in the mask � This is the most specific match

  22. Subnetting Revisited 20 � Question: does subnetting solve all the problems of class-based routing?

  23. Subnetting Revisited 20 � Question: does subnetting solve all the problems of class-based routing? NO

  24. Subnetting Revisited 20 � Question: does subnetting solve all the problems of class-based routing? NO � Classes are still too coarse � Class A can be subnetted, but only 126 available � Class C is too small � Class B is nice, but there are only 16,398 available

  25. Subnetting Revisited 20 � Question: does subnetting solve all the problems of class-based routing? NO � Classes are still too coarse � Class A can be subnetted, but only 126 available � Class C is too small � Class B is nice, but there are only 16,398 available � Routing tables are still too big � 2.1 million entries per router

  26. Classless Inter Domain Routing 21 � CIDR, pronounced ‘cider’ � Key ideas: � Get rid of IP classes � Use bitmasks for all levels of routing � Aggregation to minimize FIB (Forwarding Information Base)

  27. Classless Inter Domain Routing 21 � CIDR, pronounced ‘cider’ � Key ideas: � Get rid of IP classes � Use bitmasks for all levels of routing � Aggregation to minimize FIB (Forwarding Information Base) � Arbitrary split between network and host � Specified as a bitmask or prefix length � Example: Northeastern ■ 129.10.0.0 with netmask 255.255.0.0 ■ 129.10.0.0 / 16

  28. Example CIDR Routing Table 22 Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) IP Address Range 207.46.0.0 19 207.46.0 – 31.* 11001111 00101110 000***** ******** 207.46.32.0 19 207.46.32 – 63.* 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 19 207.46.64 – 95.* 11001111 00101110 010***** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 207.46.128 – 191.* 11001111 00101110 10****** ******** 207.46.192.0 18 207.46.192 – 255.* 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  29. Example CIDR Routing Table 22 Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) IP Address Range 207.46.0.0 19 207.46.0 – 31.* 11001111 00101110 000***** ******** 207.46.32.0 19 207.46.32 – 63.* 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 19 207.46.64 – 95.* 11001111 00101110 010***** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 207.46.128 – 191.* 11001111 00101110 10****** ******** Hole in the Routing Table: No coverage for 96 – 127 207.46.192.0 18 207.46.192 – 255.* 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  30. Example CIDR Routing Table 22 Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) IP Address Range 207.46.0.0 19 207.46.0 – 31.* 11001111 00101110 000***** ******** 207.46.32.0 19 207.46.32 – 63.* 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 19 207.46.64 – 95.* 11001111 00101110 010***** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 207.46.128 – 191.* 11001111 00101110 10****** ******** Hole in the Routing Table: No coverage for 96 – 127 207.46.192.0 18 207.46.192 – 255.* Missing entry: 207.46.96.0/19 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  31. CIDR Aggregation Example 23 Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 207.46.0.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 000***** ******** 207.46.32.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 18 Port 1 11001111 00101110 01****** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 Port 2 11001111 00101110 10****** � Aggregation allows multiple routes to be compressed together to shrink the ******** size of the routing table 207.46.192.0 18 Port 3 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  32. CIDR Aggregation Example 23 Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 207.46.0.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 000***** ******** 207.46.32.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 18 Port 1 11001111 00101110 01****** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 Port 2 11001111 00101110 10****** � Aggregation allows multiple routes to be compressed together to shrink the ******** size of the routing table 207.46.192.0 18 Port 3 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  33. CIDR Aggregation Example 23 Same length netmask Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 207.46.0.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 000***** ******** 207.46.32.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 18 Port 1 11001111 00101110 01****** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 Port 2 11001111 00101110 10****** � Aggregation allows multiple routes to be compressed together to shrink the ******** size of the routing table 207.46.192.0 18 Port 3 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  34. CIDR Aggregation Example 23 Same length netmask All bits match except for the last one Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 207.46.0.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 000***** ******** 207.46.32.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 18 Port 1 11001111 00101110 01****** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 Port 2 11001111 00101110 10****** � Aggregation allows multiple routes to be compressed together to shrink the ******** size of the routing table 207.46.192.0 18 Port 3 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  35. CIDR Aggregation Example 23 Same length netmask All bits match except for the last one Same port Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 207.46.0.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 000***** ******** 207.46.32.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 18 Port 1 11001111 00101110 01****** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 Port 2 11001111 00101110 10****** � Aggregation allows multiple routes to be compressed together to shrink the ******** size of the routing table 207.46.192.0 18 Port 3 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  36. CIDR Aggregation Example 23 Same length netmask All bits match except for the last one Same port Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 207.46.0.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 000***** 11001111 00101110 00****** 207.46.0.0 18 Port 1 ******** ******** 207.46.32.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 18 Port 1 11001111 00101110 01****** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 Port 2 11001111 00101110 10****** � Aggregation allows multiple routes to be compressed together to shrink the ******** size of the routing table 207.46.192.0 18 Port 3 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  37. CIDR Aggregation Example 23 Same length netmask All bits match except for the last one Same port Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 207.46.0.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 000***** 11001111 00101110 00****** 207.46.0.0 18 Port 1 ******** ******** 207.46.32.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 18 Port 1 11001111 00101110 01****** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 Port 2 11001111 00101110 10****** � Aggregation allows multiple routes to be compressed together to shrink the ******** size of the routing table 207.46.192.0 18 Port 3 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  38. CIDR Aggregation Example 23 Same length netmask All bits match except for the last one Same port Prefix Netmask Prefix After Masking (in Binary) Next Hop 207.46.0.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 000***** 11001111 00101110 00****** 207.46.0.0 18 Port 1 ******** 11001111 00101110 0******* ******** 207.46.0.0 17 Port 1 ******** 207.46.32.0 19 Port 1 11001111 00101110 001***** ******** 207.46.64.0 18 Port 1 11001111 00101110 01****** ******** 207.46.128.0 18 Port 2 11001111 00101110 10****** � Aggregation allows multiple routes to be compressed together to shrink the ******** size of the routing table 207.46.192.0 18 Port 3 11001111 00101110 11****** ********

  39. Size of CIDR Routing Tables 24 � From www.cidr-report.org � CIDR has kept IP routing table sizes in check � Currently ~800,000 entries for a complete IP routing table � Only required by backbone routers

  40. Takeaways 25 � Hierarchical addressing is critical for scalability � Not all routers need all information � Limited number of routers need to know about changes � Non-uniform hierarchy useful for heterogeneous networks � Class-based addressing is too course � CIDR improves scalability and granularity � Implementation challenges � Longest prefix matching is more difficult than schemes with no ambiguity

  41. Outline 26 ❑ Addressing ❑ Class-based ❑ CIDR ❑ IPv4 Protocol Details Packed Header ❑ Fragmentation ❑ ❑ IPv6

  42. IP Datagrams 27 � IP Datagrams are like a letter � Totally self-contained � Include all necessary addressing information � No advanced setup of connections or circuits 0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31 HLen Datagram Length DSCP/ECN Version Identifier Offset Flags TTL Protocol Checksum Source IP Address Destination IP Address Options (if any, usually not) Data

  43. IP Header Fields: Word 1 28 � Version: 4 for IPv4 � Header Length: Number of 32-bit words (usually 5) � Type of Service: Priority information (unused) � Datagram Length: Length of header + data in bytes 0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31 HLen Datagram Length DSCP/ECN Version Identifier Offset Flags TTL Protocol Checksum Source IP Address Destination IP Address Options (if any, usually not) Data

  44. IP Header Fields: Word 1 28 � Version: 4 for IPv4 � Header Length: Number of 32-bit words (usually 5) � Type of Service: Priority information (unused) � Datagram Length: Length of header + data in bytes 0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31 HLen Datagram Length DSCP/ECN Version Identifier Offset Flags TTL Protocol Checksum Limits packets Source IP Address to 65,535 Destination IP Address bytes Options (if any, usually not) Data

  45. IP Header Fields: Word 3 29 � Time to Live: decremented by each router � Used to kill looping packets � Protocol: ID of encapsulated protocol � 6 = TCP , 17 = UDP � Checksum 0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31 HLen Datagram Length DSCP/ECN Version Identifier Offset Flags TTL Protocol Checksum Source IP Address Destination IP Address Options (if any, usually not) Data

  46. IP Header Fields: Word 3 29 � Time to Live: decremented by each router � Used to kill looping packets � Protocol: ID of encapsulated protocol � 6 = TCP , 17 = UDP � Checksum 0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31 HLen Datagram Length DSCP/ECN Version Identifier Offset Flags TTL Protocol Checksum Source IP Address Used to Destination IP Address implement Options (if any, usually not) trace route Data

  47. IP Header Fields: Word 4 and 5 30 � Source and destination address � In theory, must be globally unique � In practice, this is often violated 0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31 HLen Datagram Length DSCP/ECN Version Identifier Offset Flags TTL Protocol Checksum Source IP Address Destination IP Address Options (if any, usually not) Data

  48. Problem: Fragmentation 31 MTU = 4000 MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500 � Problem: each network has its own MTU � DARPA principles: networks allowed to be heterogeneous � Minimum MTU may not be known for a given path

  49. Problem: Fragmentation 31 MTU = 4000 MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500 � Problem: each network has its own MTU � DARPA principles: networks allowed to be heterogeneous � Minimum MTU may not be known for a given path

  50. Problem: Fragmentation 31 MTU = 4000 MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500 � Problem: each network has its own MTU � DARPA principles: networks allowed to be heterogeneous � Minimum MTU may not be known for a given path � IP Solution: fragmentation � Split datagrams into pieces when MTU is reduced � Reassemble original datagram at the receiver

  51. Problem: Fragmentation 31 MTU = 4000 MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500 3 4 Datagram Dgram1 Dgram2 1 2 � Problem: each network has its own MTU � DARPA principles: networks allowed to be heterogeneous � Minimum MTU may not be known for a given path � IP Solution: fragmentation � Split datagrams into pieces when MTU is reduced � Reassemble original datagram at the receiver

  52. IP Header Fields: Word 2 32 � Identifier: a unique number for the original datagram � Flags: M flag, i.e. this is the last fragment � Offset: byte position of the first byte in the fragment � Divided by 8 0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31 HLen TOS Datagram Length Version Identifier Offset Flags TTL Protocol Checksum Source IP Address Destination IP Address Options (if any, usually not) Data

  53. Fragmentation Example 33 MTU = 4000 MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500 ID = 123 Length = 3820, M = 0 IP Hdr Data 3800 20

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