CHAPTER THREE The Psychological Approach: A Profusion of Theories - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

CHAPTER THREE The Psychological Approach: A Profusion of Theories

Psychology  The scientific study of mind and behavior.  Uses the scientific method as a means of gaining knowledge.  Investigates internal mental events such as reasoning, language, and memory.  Also investigates external behaviors such as talking, walking, and grasping.

The Scientific Method  A theory is a general understanding of the world that organizes a set of facts and aids us in understanding how the world works.  A hypothesis is a more specific statement about the world that is frequently derived from a hypothesis and can be tested.

Experiments  Scientists use experiments to test hypotheses.  An experiment must have at least two variables.  The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher.  The dependent variable is measured by the researcher.

Experiments  An experiment must also have at least two conditions or groups.  The experimental group receives the independent variable.  The control group does not.

Experiments – An Example  Theory: Practice facilitates problem solving.  Hypothesis: Doing logic problems before being tested will increase scores on a subsequent logic test.

Experiments – An Example  Experimental  Control group: group: • 20 participants. • 20 participants. • Not allowed to • Allowed to practice practice. solving problems for 10 minutes. • Given the same test problem. • Then given a test problem. • Dependent variable • Independent is scores on the test. variable is practice.

Experiments – An Example  Scores on the dependent variable for the two groups are compared.  If test scores in the experimental group are significantly higher, then the hypothesis is supported.

Voluntarism  Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is founder.  View that the mind is made up of elements.  The elements are assembled into wholes through an act of will.  Influenced by atoms and molecules of chemistry.

Introspection  Method used by the voluntarists and other early psychologists.  Means “ inner looking. ” Consists of subjective self-report of mental states.  Fraught with difficulties.

Structuralism  Edward Titchener (1867-1927) considered founder.  Shares the beliefs that mind is made of elements and use of introspection with voluntarism.  But viewed element combination occurring through passive mechanical laws.

Functionalism  Closely associated with William James (1842- 1910).  Focus is on mental processes and functions rather than elements.  Idea of a stream of consciousness . Thought is flowing and changing, not static.

Gestalt Psychology  Contributors include Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kohler (1887-1967), and Koffka (1886-1941).  View that mind consists of wholes that are more than the sum of their parts, described as a gestalt.  Method was phenomenology , a subjective description of an external stimulus.

Laws of Perceptual Organization  Parts group together based on their relationships.  Parts that are (a) proximal, (b) similar, and form (c) closed or (d) good figures tend to go together.

Insight Learning  Initial attempts to solve a problem fail.  Problem is put aside for some time.  Solution occurs rapidly, perhaps through unconscious processes, and is then verified. Kohler ’ s chimp incubates on a problem.

Psychoanalytic Psychology Established by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).  Mind is made up of “ mini-minds ” that  compete for control. Three states of consciousness:  Conscious 1. Preconscious 2. Unconscious 3.

Psychoanalytic Psychology In addition, three  primary mental structures: Id . Runs on the 1. pleasure principle. Superego . Runs on 2. the idealistic principle. Ego . Runs on the 3. reality principle.

Behaviorism  The mind of an organism (O) is a “ Black Box. ” It cannot be studied.  Focus is instead on behaviors or responses (R).  Responses can be controlled through stimuli (S).

Types of Learning  Classical conditioning:  Operant conditioning: Unconditioned stimulus Reinforcement. • • (US). Punishment. • Unconditioned response • (UR). Conditioned stimulus • (CS). Conditioned response • (CR).

Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Studying Grouping Quantitatively  Kubovy and Wagemans (1995) showed six lattice types to observers.  They reported which way the dots grouped.  The likelihood of grouping was plotted as a function of the distances between dots.  The resulting attraction function showed an exponential increase.