Chapter 9: Passive Constructions Syntactic Constructions in English Kim and Michaelis (2020) Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 1 / 43
Introduction 1 2 The Relationship between Active and Passive Approaches to Passive 3 From Structural Description to Structural Change A Transformational Approach A Construction-Based Approach Prepositional Passives 4 5 The Get -Passive Conclusion 6 Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 2 / 43
Active and passive One important goal of syntactic analysis is to capture formal and semantic properties common to two or more constructions. (1) a. One of Korea’s most famous poets wrote these lines. (active) b. These lines were written by one of Korea’s most famous poets. (passive) These two sentences are true or false under the same real-world conditions: they both describe the event of writing the lines by one Korean poet. The only difference involves grammatical functions. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 3 / 43
Why passive over active? It is generally accepted that the passive construction is used for certain discourse motivated reasons. For example, when the person or thing acted upon is what the sentence is about, we tend to use passive. (2) a. Somebody apparently struck the unidentified victim during the early morning hours. b. The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 4 / 43
Why passive over active? (cont’d) In addition, language users prefer passive voice when the identity of the actor is unknown or unimportant. (3) a. Targets can be observed at any angle. b. During the early evening, Saturn is found in the north, while Jupiter rises in the east. Similarly, we use the passive voice in formal, scientific, or technical writing and reports to convey an objective presentation on the events of state of affairs being described. (4) a. I poured 20cc of acid into the beaker. b. About 20cc of acid was poured into the beaker. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 5 / 43
Relationship between active and passive Grammatical functions and subcategorization: By definition, a transitive verb form such as taken or chosen must have an object. (5) a. John has taken Bill to the library. b. John has chosen Bill for the position. (6) a. *John has taken to the library. b. *John has chosen for the position. Yet, when such verbs are passive, the object NP is necessarily absent from the post-verbal position. (7) a. *The guide has been taken John to the library. b. *The department has been chosen John for the position. (8) a. John has been taken to the library. b. John has been chosen for the position. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 6 / 43
Relationship between active and passive (cont’d) Apart from the realizations of the two core arguments of a transitive verb, other subcategorization requirements are unchanged in a passive form. (9) a. Pat handed a book to Chris. b. *Pat handed to Chris. c. *Pat handed a book. (10) a. A book was handed to Chris (by Pat). b. *A book was handed (by Pat). Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 7 / 43
Relationship between active and passive (cont’d) Other selectional properties: The selectional properties of the active verb are preserved in a passive sentence. (11) a. They believe it/*Stephen to be easy to annoy Ben. b. They believe there to be a dragon in the wood. (12) a. It/*Stephen is believed to be easy to annoy Ben. b. There is believed to be a dragon in the wood. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 8 / 43
Relationship between active and passive (cont’d) If the active complement is itself a clause, the subject of the passive verb must also be a clause. (13) a. No one believes/suspects [that he is a fool]. b. [That he is a fool] is believed/suspected by no one. If the postverbal constituent is construed as part of an idiom, so is the subject in the passive. (14) a. They believe the cat to be out of the bag. b. The cat is believed to be out of the bag. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 9 / 43
Relationship between active and passive (cont’d) Morphosyntactic changes: In addition to changes in argument realization, the passive construction requires the auxiliary verb be , which requires the passive form of the verb. (15) a. Jean drove the car. → The car was driven. b. Jean was driving the car. → The car was being driven. c. Jean will drive the car. → The car will be driven. d. Jean has driven the car. → The car has been driven. e. Jean has been driving the car. → The car has been being driven. f. Jean will have been driving the car. → The car will have been being driven. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 10 / 43
Relationship between active and passive (cont’d) Semantics: A passive verb preserves the semantic-role assignments of its active counterpart. (16) a. Pat handed Chris a note. b. Chris was handed a note (by Pat). (17) a. TV puts ideas into children’s heads. b. Ideas are put into children’s heads (by TV). Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 11 / 43
Sum-up: basic properties of passive Passive turns the active object into the passive subject; Passive leaves other aspects of the comps value of the active verb unchanged; Passive optionally allows the active subject to be the object in a PP headed by by ; Passive makes the appropriate morphological change in the form of the main verb, and requires that this verb be the complement of auxiliary be . Passive preserves the semantics of the verb lexeme. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 12 / 43
� � � � � � From structural description to structural change (18) Chomsky’s (1957) Passive Formation Construction with Structural Description (SD) and Structural Change (SC): SD: X NP Y V NP Z 1 2 3 4 5 6 SC: 1 5 3 be 4+en 6 (by 2) Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 13 / 43
� � � � � � From structural description to structural change: example (19) SD: Yesterday, the child really kicked a monkey in the street. X NP Y V NP Z 1 2 3 4 5 6 SC: 1 5 3 be 4 + en 6 (by 2) Yesterday, a monkey really was kicked in the street (by the child) Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 14 / 43
� � A transformational approach A typical transformational approach assuming movement for passive involves the operation. (20) IP ¯ NP I e I VP Past V VP be V NP deceived Bill Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 15 / 43
Transitive verbs with no corresponding passive counterparts Once we look at a wider variety of passive patterns, we can see the need to refer to lexical and semantic properties of transitive verbs. First, there are apparently transitive verbs that lack a passive counterpart. (21) a. The model resembles Kim in nearly every detail. b. *Kim is resembled by the model in nearly every detail. (22) a. The coat does not fit you. b. *You are not fitted by the coat. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 16 / 43
Only passives with no corresponding active counterparts By contrast, there are verbs like bear, rumor, say and repute , that are used only in the passive. (23) a. I was born in 1970. b. It is rumored that he is on his way out. c. John is said to be rich. d. He is reputed to be a good scholar. (24) a. *My mother bore me in 1970. b. *Everyone rumored that he was on his way out. c. *They said him to be rich. d. *They reputed him to be a good scholar. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 17 / 43
Non-patient passive subjects In addition, the subject in a passive sentence need not be a patient. (25) a. Not much is known about the effects of these medications on children. b. It was alleged by the victim that he was kidnapped. c. That laughter is the sign of joy is doubted by no one. Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 18 / 43
Passive construction (26) passive construction : passive-v � � v-tran-lxm syn | head | vform pass �→ arg-st � XPi, 2 YP, . . . � � � arg-st � 2 YP, . . . , PPi[ by ] � (27) a. They send her to Seoul. b. She is sent to Seoul (by them). (28) form � sent � � � form � send � syn | head | vform pass �→ arg-st � NP i , 2 NP, 3 PP[ to ] � arg-st � 2 NP, 3 PP[ to ], (PP i [ by ]) � Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 19 / 43
Passive construction: example tree (29) S � � vform fin VP vform fin 2 NP spr � 2 NP � comps � � 5 VP V vform fin vform pass N spr � 2 NP � spr � 2 NP � comps � 5 VP � comps � � V vform pass 3 PP She is spr � 2 NP � comps � 3 PP � sent to Seoul Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 20 / 43
Lexical entry of the passive auxiliary be (30) aux-be-pass form � be � spr � 1 NP � � � � � syn | val pass vform 2 VP comps � 1 NP � spr arg-st � 1 NP, 2 VP � Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 21 / 43
Recommend
More recommend
