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Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction Multifunctionality Semantic Maps Theories and Models of Language Change Example: Reflexives Example: Instrumentals Advantages Session 11: Semantic Maps Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning Roland Mühlenbernd July 13, 2015 1 / 20

About the Exam Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction Multifunctionality ◮ date and time: July 21st, 14:00 Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives ◮ place: tba Example: Instrumentals Advantages ◮ length: 90 minutes Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning ◮ content: 1. dynamics of language change (diverse topics) 2. evolutionary approach to language change (sessions 1-4) 3. computational models (sessions 5-7) 4. case studies (sessions 8-10) ◮ exercise type: 50 % multiple choice, 50 % ’open’ queries ◮ tip: go through slides, redo homework exercises 2 / 20

Homonymy and Polysemy Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction Multifunctionality Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives Example: Instrumentals Advantages Diachronic Change ◮ Homonym: linguistic unit with multiple unrelated Lexical Meaning meanings/functions ◮ Polysem: linguistic unit with multiple related meanings/functions 3 / 20

Relatedness: from Homonym to Polysem Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction Multifunctionality H sieben: seven, to sieve Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives H Kiefer: jawbone, pine (tree) Example: Instrumentals Advantages Diachronic Change H? Strauß: ostrich, bunch/bouquet of flowers Lexical Meaning P? Bank: bank, bench P Schloss: castle, lock P Leiter: leader/constructor, ladder P Himmel: heaven, sky P Parlament: parliament (building), parliament (group of people) 4 / 20

Semantic Variation: Multifunctionality Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction Multifunctionality Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives ◮ linguistic units have multiple senses or uses Example: Instrumentals Advantages (meaning/function) Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning ◮ differentiation between content words and function words ◮ grams : grammatical morphemes (function words, affixal categories) ◮ functions : senses/uses of linguistic units ◮ multifunctionality : multiple functions of a linguistic unit 5 / 20

Multifunctionality: Examples Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction Multifunctionality Semantic Maps 1. English preposition to Example: Reflexives Example: Instrumentals 1.1 Goethe went to Leipzig as a student. (direction) Advantages Diachronic Change 1.2 Eve gave the apple to Adam. (recipient) Lexical Meaning 1.3 This seems outrageous to me. (experiencer) 1.4 I left the party early to get home in time. (purpose) 2. English Past Tense 2.1 Goethe wrote a poem every day. (past habitual) 2.2 Goethe wrote Faust in 1808. (past perfective) 2.3 If she wrote to me tomorrow, I would reply in time. (hypothetical) 6 / 20

Multifunctionality: Positions (Exercise 1) Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction Multifunctionality Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives ◮ monosemist position : each gram has a vague abstract Example: Instrumentals Advantages meaning, and the appropriate function arise from context Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning interaction ◮ polysemist position : different but related meanings are attached to each gram ◮ homonymist position : each function of a gram has a totally separate meaning 7 / 20

Multifunctionality & Semantic Maps Roland Mühlenbernd ◮ different functions of multifunctional morphemes can be Introduction set in relation to each other (polysemy network) Multifunctionality ◮ functions generally differ among different languages Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives ◮ cross-linguistic comparison is crucial for creating a Example: Instrumentals semantic map 1 Advantages Diachronic Change 1. choosing the relevant functions Lexical Meaning 2. arranging the functions on the map (finding relations) ◮ note: grams of the same language can overlap 1 It also helps to exclude accidental homonymy. 8 / 20

Construction of Semantic Maps Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction ◮ closeness of functions is formally shown by straight Multifunctionality connecting lines (to support readability) Semantic Maps ◮ functions must be arranged so that each language under Example: Reflexives Example: Instrumentals investigation covers a contiguous area Advantages Diachronic Change ◮ example: English ‘to’ covers the three functions purpose , Lexical Meaning directions and recipient , but how should they arranged on a semantic map (Exercise 2)? a) purpose - direction - recipient b) direction - purpose - recipient c) direction - recipient - purpose ◮ answer: a) might be the right arrangements, since b) is ruled out by French ‘à’ c) is ruled out by German ‘zu’ ◮ note: every new language can falsify a semantic map 9 / 20

Semantic Map Example II: Reflexives Roland Mühlenbernd French reflexives: se (him/herself), me (myself), te (yourself) Introduction Multifunctionality Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives Example: Instrumentals Advantages Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning Russian reflexive marker: -sja/s’ 10 / 20

Semantic Map Example II: Reflexives Roland Mühlenbernd ◮ anticausative : the door opens √ ◮ full reflexive : to kill myself Introduction ◮ deobjective : the dog bites (x) ◮ grooming/body motion : to Multifunctionality wash/to turn around ◮ pot. passive : the book sells best √ Semantic Maps ◮ naturally reciprocal : to meet Example: Reflexives ◮ passive : the question was posed Example: Instrumentals Advantages Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning Exercise 3: Which of the functions are jointly covered by the French reflexive gram ‘se’, by the Russian verbal reflexive ‘-sja/-s” and by the Turkish passive suffix ‘-Il’? 11 / 20

Semantic Map Example III: Instrumentals Roland Mühlenbernd ◮ comitative-instrumental polysemy is frequent in world’s Introduction languages Multifunctionality ◮ English with : Semantic Maps a) Kanzi cracked the nut with the nutcracker. Example: Reflexives b) Sancho Pancho has arrived with Don Quijote. Example: Instrumentals Advantages ◮ German mit : Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning a) Kanzi knackte die Nuss mit dem Nussknacker. b) Sancho Pancho ist mit Don Quijote angekommen. ◮ but not universal ◮ Russian suffixes -em/-om vs preposition s : a) Kanzi raskolol orex kamn -em . b) Sanco Pansa prisel s Don Kixotom. ◮ some comitative-like functions can be singled out as co-agency , like: “S. Pancho fought with Don Quijote.” ◮ another (mostly in non-European languages) common additional polysemy involves the conjunctive function, like in “S. Pancho and Don Quijote fought together.” 12 / 20

Semantic Map Example III: Instrumentals Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction Multifunctionality Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives Example: Instrumentals Advantages Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning ◮ an example for an extended range of functions is given in Seychelles Creole with the preposition ek , that includes the functions recipient , passive agent , source and cause ◮ Russian ‘-om’ expresses instrumental and passive , and ‘s’ expresses conjunctive and comitative (plus co-agent ) ◮ French ‘par’ expresses passive & cause (c.f. English ‘by’) ◮ German ‘von’ ( passive , source ) and ‘aus’ ( cause , source ) ◮ only comitative - recipient is not found in Europ. languages ◮ another link: English ‘for’ ( beneficiary cause ) and German/Latin Dative ( recipient , beneficiary ) 13 / 20

Overlapping Semantic Maps Roland Mühlenbernd ◮ semantic maps represent an arbitrary sub-network of the Introduction “semantic universe” Multifunctionality ◮ semantic maps might have overlapping areas Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives Example: Instrumentals Advantages Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning ◮ semantic maps can be consolidated in bigger maps 14 / 20

Advantages of Semantic Maps Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction Multifunctionality Exercise 4: Haspelmath discusses the advantages of semantic Semantic Maps maps. He states that semantic maps... Example: Reflexives ◮ ensure cross-linguistic comparability √ Example: Instrumentals Advantages Diachronic Change ◮ help to detect universal semantic relationships √ Lexical Meaning ◮ generate a number of implicational universals √ ◮ allow to avoid the problem of polysemy/vagueness-distinction √ ◮ reveal the exact distance of different concepts/functions ◮ create a realistic model of the full conceptual space ◮ lead to expectations about diachronic change √ 15 / 20

Semantic Maps and Diachronic Change Roland Mühlenbernd ◮ semantic maps can be an important tool for diachrony and Introduction grammaticalization studies Multifunctionality ◮ example: given the semantic for typical dative Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives Example: Instrumentals Advantages Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning ◮ the prediction that direction marker is extended to predicative possessor , it must have been extended to recipisnt before ◮ diachronically a gram cannot arbitrarily jump to a distant function, but must be extended step by step ◮ evidence from diachronic date is much harder to get ◮ to be certain that a change is unidirectional needs a number of attested cases and no counterexamples 16 / 20

Semantic Maps and Diachronic Change Roland Mühlenbernd From reflexive to passive: attested direction from left to right Introduction Multifunctionality Semantic Maps Example: Reflexives Example: Instrumentals Advantages Diachronic Change Lexical Meaning 17 / 20