Psychology Fundamentals 9B/11B Exam 3 Review
Final Exam • Date: Thursday, March 23rd • Time: 8:00am • Please do not show up at 9:30am (it’s impossible to do well on this exam in 30 minutes). • Please remember to bring a scantron and your ID Card . • Exam is not cumulative • In other words, you’re only responsible for the material discussed after the second exam. • Once more: the exam is at 8:00 am :)
An Overview • Week 8: • Development • Prenatal Development • Cognitive Development • Week 9: • Social Development • Attachment • Week 10: • Relationships • Parents • Teens • Media Use
Week 8
Developmental Psychology • This field is dedicating to understanding how and why we change and adapt over time. • Many areas of interest; prenatal, child, adolescent, adult, etc. • For this first week, we talked about prenatal • Lots of crazy stuff: • Teratogens • Maternal Stress • Noise • Infant: • Reflexes (some of these disappear) • Ways to study infant development • Observational Method • Preference Method • Habituation Method
Cognitive Development • Primarily after infancy, thought processes and internal working circuitry undergo massive development. • We call this cognitive development • Piaget • Four Main Tenets: • Predispositions and environment key • Active participation • Innate structures help organize • Schemas • Assimilation • Accommodation • Equilibrium • Development progresses in stages • Sensorimotor • Pre-operational • Concrete operational • Formal operational
Stages of Development • Sensorimotor (Infancy - 2 years) • Infants interpret the world as a product of their own experiences and sensations • Object permanence (develops around 8-12 months) • Big for mental representations • A-not-B error still commonplace throughout, though… • Pre-operational (2 years - 7 years) • Children can think about things symbolically. • Still fail at things: • Animism: Giving lifelike qualities to things that aren’t alive. • Centration: Irrelevant details • Egocentrism: Focus on the self. • The mountains experiment is a good demonstrator.
Stages of Development • Concrete operational (7 years - 12 years) • Able to think logically about concrete problems • Understand the concept of give and take. • Understand how changes can cancel others. • Understand how to reverse processes. • But, cannot think abstractly just yet. • Very limited to problems here and now. • Formal operational (12 years - Onward) • Can think abstractly. • Comprehend hypotheticals. • Reasoning on par with adults.
Not everyone was buying it, though. • Piaget’s theories had problems. • Development is not as stage-like as once believed. • Skills and abilities may be presented earlier than Piaget described. • Social context omitted. • Said a lot about development, but nothing about vehicles for change (i.e. what causes one stage to move on to another?) • His critics: • Argued that kids at multiple stages have an egocentric view of the world. • Gradual acquisition of knowledge more readily observable. • Piaget didn’t account for executive control. • Kids don’t just engage any random thing that catches their attention; their behavior is goal-oriented. • Can control impulses (not very well, though). • Can weigh consequences of their actions.
Why bother with Piaget then? • Because he was a pioneer, that’s why! • Founded a whole branch of psychology devoted to cognitive change. • Discovered that cognitive development is intrinsically motivated. • Infants are not blank slates — they engage their environment, adjust their knowledge and progress cognitively at an astounding rate!
Week 9 *by the way, the exam is at 8am.
Physical is fine, but what about moral development? • Piaget had relatively little to say on moral development in his career. • This is where Kohlberg comes in. • Thought that moral reasoning develops in stages similar to Piaget’s. • Pre-conventional • Judge level of morality on direct consequences. • “It’s wrong to do this because I’ll get in trouble.” • Conventional • Following rules, conforming to society. • “It’s wrong to do this because it is against the law.” • Post-conventional • Intrinsic sense of morality • Doing something because it is just. • “I will not do this because it goes against what I believe in.”
But what about society? • Erik Erikson (1950, 1963) • Worked off the ideas of Freud • Thought that psychosocial development proceeded in stages, but in much longer periods of time. • Each stage characterized by an existential question. • I’ll go over them all in detail the last half, but for now I’ll list them with their questions. • Trust vs. Mistrust (“Can I trust the world?”) • Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (“Is it okay to be myself?”) • Initiative vs. Guilt (“Is it okay for me to do this?”) • Industry vs. Inferiority (“Can I make it in this world?”) • Identity vs. Role Confusion (“Who am I?”) • Intimacy vs. Isolation (“Can I love? Will I be loved?”) • Generativity vs. Stagnation (“Can I make this life count?”) • Ego Integrity vs. Despair (“Did my life have meaning?”)
Social Development and Attachment • Infants, children, and adults have to function in society — how do we do this? • At its basest form, much of how well we succeed socially is contingent on attachment . • Attachment • A strong, enduring emotional bond between individuals — earliest is usually between infant and mother. • Bowlby’s Attachment Theory: • Grew from evidence gained from Harlow’s Monkey Experiment, and Lorenz’s Imprinting • Mothers act as a secure base • Children will proceed to develop a set of beliefs based on the mother’s availability, and use these beliefs to respond to the outside world. • But what happens when this base varies?
Attachment Styles • Ainsworth • Developed the “Strange Situation”. • Identified four different attachment styles: • Secure • Anxious-resistant • Anxious-avoidant • Disorganized • Later work accounts for other variables. • Parental Sensitivity • How available a parent is influences the attachment style of their baby. • Experiences • Day-care vs. no day-care. • Culture • American, Japanese, German attachment frequencies differ • Temperament • Some infants are simply biologically predisposed to an attachment style. • This doesn’t mean they’ll fulfill it with 100% certainty, however.
Attachment • Extensions! • For instance, what about fathers? • Bowlby kind of didn’t care, but still said they were important. • If secure with one, usually secure with the other. • Attachment to one parent is most important, though. • Part of the reason why secure attachment styles can be seen in same-sex or single- parent families. • Attachment is often stable. • Outlook for secure infants positive! • We can measure adult attachment as well. • Airport study. • Questionnaires • In short, attachments are key to our functioning, and have lasting effects across the span of our lives.
Week 10
Parenting • Even parents can demonstrate distinct “styles”. • Baumrind • Thought of parenting as being a measure of the varying degrees of demandingness (expectations) and responsiveness (support and communication). • Identified Four Parenting Styles: • Authoritative (High Dem. High Res.) • Authoritarian (High Dem. Low Res.) • Permissive (Low Dem. High Res.) • Uninvolved (Low Dem. Low Res.)
Outcomes • Adolescent outcomes easily represented from parenting style. • Authoritative • Optimal, most positive outcomes. • Authoritarian • Variable outcomes, usually good if parenting not extreme. • Academic performance good early on. • Permissive/Uninvolved • Withdrawn • Decline in academic performance. • High rates of delinquent behavior.
More Diverse Samples. • Baumrind’s model held universally true for Caucasian, nonHispanic middle/upper-class families. • Expanded Study: • Caucasian, Hispanic, African American • Permissive = poor adjustment, negative outcomes. • Authoritative = high performance, positive outcomes. • Hispanic Americans • Differences between permissive and authoritative more extreme. • African American • Permissive parenting displayed stronger than average negative effect. • Female adolescents of authoritarian parents do well. • Chao (2001) • Looked at European and Chinese high schoolers. • 1/2 first generation and 1/2 second generation. • Findings suggested that parenting style assignment doesn’t take into account respect for elders, nuances of culture, obedience, or self-control.
Technology • Adolescent use of technology • Pretty much use it all the time. • And parents think it’s bad. • But it turns out, there may be some positive effects of technology use. • Negative: • Bullying • Sleep deprivation • Distraction • Positive: • Online interaction actually augments offline communication. • Some technologies can be used in medicine, research, and industry. • Teens can learn about development, things pertaining to puberty. • Strengthen friendships.
Articles *as usual, very brief
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