Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics What does “DNA” stand for? • Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) IS the genetic information of most living organisms. In contrast, some viruses (called retroviruses) use ribonucleic acid as genetic information. “Genes” correspond to sequences of DNA • DNA is a polymere (i.e., necklace of many alike units), made of units called nucleotides. • Some interesting features of DNA include: - DNA can be copied over generations of cells : DNA replication - DNA can be translated into proteins: DNA transcription into RNA, further translated into proteins - DNA can be repaired when needed: DNA repair . K Van Steen 84
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics What does “DNA” stand for? • There are 4 nucleotide bases , denoted A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine) and C (cytosine) • A and G are called purines, T and C are called pyrimidines (smaller molecules than purines) • The two strands of DNA in the double helix structure are (Biochemistry 2nd Ed. by Garrett & Grisham) complementary (sense and anti-sense strands); A binds with T and G binds with C K Van Steen 85
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Primary structure of DNA The 3 dimensional structure of DNA can be described in terms of primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. • The primary structure of DNA is the sequence itself - the order of nucleotides in the deoxyribonucleic acid polymer. • A nucleotide consists of - a phosphate group, - a deoxyribose sugar and - a nitrogenous base. • Nucleotides can also have other functions such as carrying energy: ATP • Note: Nucleo s ides are made of a sugar and a nitrogenous base… K Van Steen 86
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Nucleotides Nitrogenous bases (http://www.sparknotes.com/101/index.php/biology) K Van Steen 87
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Secondary structure of DNA • The secondary structure of DNA is relatively straightforward - it is a double helix. • It is related to the hydrogen bonding • The two strands are anti-parallel. - The 5' end is composed of a phosphate group that has not bonded with a sugar unit. - The 3' end is composed of a sugar unit whose hydroxyl group has not bonded with a phosphate group. K Van Steen 88
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Major groove and minor groove • The double helix presents a major groove and a minor groove (Figure 1). - The major groove is deep and wide - The minor groove is narrow and shallow. • The chemical groups on the edges of GC and AT base pairs that are available for interaction with proteins in the major and minor grooves are color-coded for different types of interactions (Figure 2) Figure 1 Figure 2 K Van Steen 89
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Tertiary structure of DNA • This structure refers to how DNA is stored in a confined space to form the chromosomes. • It varies depending on whether the organisms prokaryotes and eukaryotes: - In prokaryotes the DNA is folded like a super-helix, usually in circular shape and associated with a small amount of protein. The same happens in cellular organelles such as mitochondria . - In eukaryotes, since the amount of DNA from each chromosome is very large, the packing must be more complex and compact, this requires the presence of proteins such as histones and other proteins of non- histone nature • Hence, in humans, the double helix is itself super-coiled and is wrapped around so-called histones (see later). K Van Steen 90
Bioinformatics Chapt apter 2: Introduction to genetics • Eukaryotes : organisms w secretion of pr f proteins in the s with a cell. rather complex cellular st ar structure. - Mitochondria a ria are other In their cells we find orga rganelles, examples of or f organelles, and clearly discernable compa mpartments are involved in d in respiration and with a particular function tion and energy produc duction structure. - The organelles are su e surrounded by semi-permeable membranes that compartmentalize the e them further in the cytopla plasm. - The Golgi apparatus is us is an example of an organe anelle that is involved in the transp ansport and K Van Steen 91
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics • Prokaryotes : cells without organelles where the genetic information floats freely in the cytoplasm K Van Steen 92
Bioinformatics Chapt apter 2: Introduction to genetics Quaternary structure of DN f DNA • At the ends of linear • In human cells, telo , telomeres are long chromosomes are special cialized areas of single-stra stranded DNA regions of DNA called telo telomeres. containing several eral thousand • The main function of thes these regions repetitions of a sin a single sequence TTAGGG. is to allow the cell to repli replicate chromosome ends using t ing the enzyme telomerase, since ince other enzymes that replicate DN e DNA cannot copy the 3 'ends o ds of chromosomes. (http://www.boddunan.c an.com/miscellaneous) K Van Steen 93
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics The structure of DNA • A wide variety of proteins form complexes with DNA in order to replicate it, transcribe it into RNA, and regulate the transcriptional process (central dogma of molecular biology). - P roteins are long chains of amino acids - An amino acids being an organic compound containing amongst others an amino group (NH 2 ) and a carboxylic acid group (COOH)) - Think of aminco acids as 3-letter words of nucleotide building blocks (letters). K Van Steen 94
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Every cell in the body has the same DNA • One base pair is 0.00000000034 meters • DNA sequence in any two people is 99.9% identical – only 0.1% is unique! K Van Steen 95
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Differential expression • The determination of different cell types (cell fates) involves progressive restrictions in their developmental potentials. When a cell “chooses” a particular fate, it is said to be determined, although it still "looks" just like its undetermined neighbors. Determination implies a stable change - the fate of determined cells does not change. • Differentiation follows determination, as the cell elaborates a cell-specific developmental program. Differentiation results in the presence of cell types that have clear-cut identities, such as muscle cells, nerve cells, and skin cells. • Differentiation results from differential gene expression K Van Steen 96
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics K Van Steen 97
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Chromosomes • In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones (see later) that support its structure. • Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus—not even under a microscope—when the cell is not dividing. • However, the DNA that makes up chromosomes becomes more tightly packed during cell division and is then visible under a microscope. Most of what researchers know about chromosomes was learned by observing chromosomes during cell division. K Van Steen 98
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Histones: packaging of DNA in the nucleus • Histones are proteins rich in lysine and arginine residues and thus positively- charged. • For this reason they bind tightly to the negatively-charged phosphates in DNA. K Van Steen 99
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Chromosomes • All chromosomes have a stretch of • The ends of the chromosomes repetitive DNA called the (that are not centromeric) are centromere. This plays an called telomeres. They play an important role in chromosomal important role in aging. duplication before cell division. • If the centromere is located at the extreme end of the chromosome, that chromosome is called acrocentric. • If the centromere is in the middle of the chromosome, it is termed metacentric (www.genome.gov) K Van Steen 100
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Chromosomes • The short arm of the chromosome is usually termed p for petit (small), the long arm, q , for queue (tall). • The telomeres are correspondingly referred to as pter and qter . K Van Steen 101
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Chromatids • A chromatid is one among the two identical copies of DNA making up a replicated chromosome, which are joined at their centromeres, for the process of cell division (mitosis or meiosis – see later). K Van Steen 102
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Sex chromosomes • Homogametic sex : that sex containing two like sex chromosomes - In most animals species these are females (XX) - Butterflies and Birds, ZZ males • Heterogametic sex: that sex containing two different sex chromosomes - In most animal species these are XY males - Butterflies and birds, ZW females - Grasshopers have XO males K Van Steen 103
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Pairing of sex chromosomes • In the homogametic sex: pairing happens like normal autosomal chromosomes • In the heterogametic sex: The two sex chromosomes are very different, and have special pairing regions to insure proper pairing at meiosis K Van Steen 104
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics X-inactivation • X-inactivation (also called lyonization) is a process by which one of the two copies of the X chromosome present in female mammals is inactivated • X-inactivation occurs so that the female, with two X chromosomes, does not have twice as many X chromosome gene products as the male, which only possess a single copy of the X chromosome The ginger colour of cats (known as "yellow", "orange" or "red" to cat breeders) is caused by the "O" gene. The O gene changes black pigment into a reddish pigment. The O gene is carried on the X chromosome. A normal male cat has XY genetic makeup; he only needs to inherit one O gene for him to be a ginger cat. A normal female is XX genetic makeup. She must inherit two O genes to be a ginger cat. If she inherits only one O gene, she will be tortoiseshell. The O gene is called a sex-linked gene because it is carried on a sex chromosome. Tortoiseshell cats are therefore heterozygous (not true-breeding) for red colour. The formation of red and black patches in a female with only one O gene is through a process known as X-chromosome inactivation. Some cells randomly activate the O gene while others activate the gene in the equivalent place on the other X chromosome. (wikipedia) K Van Steen 105
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics X-inactivation • The choice of which X chromosome will be inactivated is random in placental mammals such as mice and humans, but once an X chromosome is inactivated it will remain inactive throughout the lifetime of the cell. K Van Steen 106
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics The human genome • The human genome consists of about 3 ×10 9 base pairs and contains about 22,000 genes • Cells containing 2 copies of each chromosome are called diploid (most human cells). Cells that contain a single copy are called haploid. • Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes: 22 autosomal pairs and one pair of sex chromosomes • Females have two copies of the X chromosome, and males have one X and one Y chromosome • Much of the DNA is either in introns or in intragenic regions … which brings us to study the transmission or exploitation of genetic information in more detail. K Van Steen 107
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics 1.b What does the genetic information mean? (Roche Genetics) • Promoter : Initial binding site for RNA polymerase in the process of gene expression. First transcription factors bind to the promoter which is located 5' to the transcription initiation site in a gene. K Van Steen 108
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Genes and Proteins (Roche Genetics) (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v426/n6968/images/nature02261-f2.2.jpg) K Van Steen 109
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Translation table from DNA building stones to protein building stones (Roche Genetics) • Where does the U come from? K Van Steen 110
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Comparison between DNA and RNA • Pieces of coding material that the cells needs at a particular moment, is transcribed from the DNA in RNA for use outside the cell nucleus. (Human Anatomy & Physiology - Addison-Wesley 4th ed) • Note that in RNA U(racil), another pyrimidine, replaces T in DNA K Van Steen 111
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Reading the code • Because there are only 20 amino acids that need to be coded (using A, C, U or G), the genetic code can be said to be degenerate, with the third position often being redundant • The code is read in triplets of bases. • Depending on the starting point of reading, there are three possible variants to translate a given base sequence into an amino acid sequence. These variants are called reading frames K Van Steen 112
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Reading the code K Van Steen 113
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics 1.c How is the genetic information translated? The link between genes and proteins: nucleotide bases • A gene codes for a protein, but also has sections concerned with gene expression and regulation (E.g., promoter region) • The translation of bases into amino acids uses RNA and not DNA; it is initiated by a START codon and terminated by a STOP codon. • Hence, it are the three-base sequences (codons) that code for amino acids and sequences of amino acids in turn form proteins K Van Steen 114
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics DNA makes RNA, RNA makes proteins, proteins make us K Van Steen 115
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Central dogma of molecular biology K Van Steen 116
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Central dogma of molecular biology • Stage 1: DNA replicates its information in a process that involves many enzymes. This stage is called the replication stage. • Stage 2: The DNA codes for the production of messenger RNA (mRNA) during transcription of the sense strand (coding or non-template strand) (Roche Genetics) So the coding strand is the DNA strand which has the same base sequence as the RNA transcript produced (with thymine replaced by uracil). It is this strand which contains codons , while the non-coding strand (or anti-sense strand) contains anti-codons. K Van Steen 117
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics • Stage 3: In eukaryotic cells, the mRNA is processed (essentially by splicing) and migrates from the nucleus to the cytoplasm (Roche Genetics) • Stage 4: mRNA carries coded information to ribosomes. The ribosomes "read" this information and use it for protein synthesis. This stage is called the translation stage. K Van Steen 118
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Translation is facilitated by two key molecules • Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules transport amino acids to the growing protein chain. Each tRNA carries an amino acid at one end and a three- base pair region, called the anti-codon, at the other end. The anti-codon binds with the codon on the protein chain via base pair matching. K Van Steen 119
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Translation is facilitated by two key molecules (continued) (Roche Genetics) • Ribosomes bind to the mRNA and facilitate protein synthesis by acting as docking sites for tRNA. Each ribosome is composed of a large and small subunit, both made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. The ribosome has three docking sites for tRNA K Van Steen 120
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics DNA repair mechanisms • In biology, a mutagen (Latin, literally origin of change) is a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic material (usually DNA) of an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level. • As many mutations cause cancer, mutagens are typically also carcinogens. • Not all mutations are caused by mutagens: so-called "spontaneous mutations" occur due to errors in (Roche genetics) DNA replication, repair and recombination. K Van Steen 121
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Types of mutations • Deletion • Duplication • Inversion • Insertion • Translocation (National Human Genome Research Institute) K Van Steen 122
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Types of mutations (continued) K Van Steen 123
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics DNA repair mechanisms • Where it can go wrong when reading the code … K Van Steen 124
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics DNA repair mechanisms • damage reversal: simplest; enzymatic action restores normal structure without breaking backbone • damage removal: involves cutting out and replacing a damaged or inappropriate base or section of nucleotides • damage tolerance: not truly repair but a way of coping with damage so that life can go on K Van Steen 125
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics 2 Overview of human genetics 2.a How is the genetic information transmitted from generation to generation Understanding heredity • Pythagoras • Mendel • Morgan • Empedocles • Crick & Watson • Aristotle • McClintock • Harvey • Leeuwenhoek • de Maupertuis ( http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genome ) • Darwin K Van Steen 126
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Pythagoras (580-500 BC) Pythagoras surmised that all hereditary material came from a child’s father. The mother provided only the location and nourishment for the fetus. Semen was a cocktail of hereditary information, coursing through a man’s body and collecting fluids from every organ in its travels. This male fluid became the formative material of a child once a man deposited it inside a woman. K Van Steen 127
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Aristotle (384-322 BC) Aristotle’s understanding of heredity, clearly following from Pythagorean thought, held wide currency for almost 2,000 years. The Greek philosopher correctly believed that both mother and father contribute biological material toward the creation of offspring, but he was mistakenly convinced that a child is the product of his or her parents’ commingled blood. K Van Steen 128
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics De Maupertuis (1698-1759) In his 1751 book, Système de la nature (System of Nature), French mathematician, biologist, and astronomer Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis initiated the first speculations into the modern idea of dominant and recessive genes. De Maupertuis studied the occurrences of polydactyly (extra fingers) among several generations of one family and showed how this trait could be passed through both its male and female members. K Van Steen 129
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Darwin (1809-1882) Darwin’s ideas of heredity revolved around his concept of "pangenesis." In pangenesis, small particles called pangenes, or gemmules, are produced in every organ and tissue of the body and flow through the bloodstream. The reproductive material of each individual formed from these pangenes was therefore passed on to one’s offspring. K Van Steen 130
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Here we meet again … our friend Mendel (1822-1884) Gregor Mendel, an Austrian scientist All of the hybrid plants produced by who lived and conducted much of this union had smooth seeds... his most important research in a Czechoslovakian monastery, stablished the basis of modern genetic science. He experimented on pea plants in an effort to understand how a parent passed physical traits to its offspring. In one experiment, Mendel crossbred a pea plant with wrinkled seeds and a pea plant with smooth seeds. K Van Steen 131
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Morgan (1866-1945) Thomas Hunt Morgan began factors that are expressed in experimenting with Drosophilia, the different combinations when fruit fly, in 1908. He bred a single coupled with the genes of a mate. white-eyed male fly with a red-eyed female. All the offspring produced by this union, both male and female, had red eyes. From these and other results, Morgan established a theory of heredity that was based on the idea that genes, arranged on the chromosomes, carry hereditary K Van Steen 132
Bioinformatics Chapt apter 2: Introduction to genetics Crick (1916-2004) and Watson (1928-) Employing X-rays and molec olecular models, Watson and Crick ick discovered the double helix elix structure of DNA. Suddenly enly they could explain how the DNA NA molecule duplicates itself by forming ing a sister strand to complement each ach single, ladder-like DNA template. K Van Steen 133
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Mendel hits the modern world: Chromosomes contain the units of heredity ? K Van Steen 134
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Formal work definition of heredity • Heredity is always linked to the trait under investigation: - The phenotype is the characteristic (e.g. hair color) that results from having a specific genotype ; - The trait is a coded (e.g. for actual statistical analysis) of the phenotype. • The concept of "heritability" was introduced in order to measure the importance of genetics in relation to other factors in causing the variability of a trait in a population - What could these other factors be? K Van Steen 135
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Formal work definition of heredity (continued) • There are two main different measures for heredity: - Broad heritability : proportion of total phenotypic variance accounted for by all genetic components (coefficient of genetic determination) - Narrow heritability : proportion of phenotypic variance accounted for by the additive genetic component • Popular study design to estimate heritability is the twins design. - Can you come up with reasons? K Van Steen 136
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Genetic information is inherited via meiosis • Paternal genes (via sperm) and maternal genes (via egg) are donated to offspring • Yet, parents won’t lose genetic information, nor offspring will have too much genetic information (Roche Genetics) K Van Steen 137
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Meiosis in detail • Meiosis is a process to convert a diploid cell to a haploid gamete, and causes a change in the genetic information to increase diversity in the offspring. • In particular, meiosis refers to the processes of cell division with two phases resulting in four haploid cells (gametes) from a diploid cell. In meiosis I, the already doubled chromosome number reduces to half to create two diploid cells each containing one set of replicated chromosomes. Genetic recombination between homologous chromosome pairs occurs during meiosis I. In meiosis II, each diploid cell creates two haploid cells resulting in four gametes from one diploid cell (mitosis). • Check out a nice demo to differentiate meiosis from mitosis: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/miracle/divide.html K Van Steen 138
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Meiosis in detail 1 3 2 4 K Van Steen 139
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Meiosis in detail 5 7 6 8 K Van Steen 140
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Meiosis in detail 10 8 11 9 K Van Steen 141
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Recombination introduces extra variation • A collection of linked loci (loci that tend to be inherited together) is called a haplotype • Immediately before the cell division that leads to gametes, parts of the homologous chromosomes may be exchanged An individual with haplotypes A-B and a-b may produce gametes A-B and a-b or A-b and a-B. This process is called recombination . • The probability of recombination during meiosis is termed the recombination fraction , and is usually denoted by θ . - What are the extreme values of the recombination fraction? K Van Steen 142
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Recombination and haplotypes (Roche genetics) K Van Steen 143
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Recombination is different from gene conversion • What has been described historically, and above, as recombination should, more properly, be called cross-over (i.e. the process by which two chromosomes pair up and exchange sections of their DNA; recombination refers to the result of such a process, namely genetic recombination). • Although cross-over is indeed caused by breaking and rejoining of chromosomes, they more often rejoin nearly the same way around. • Often a short segment of DNA (< 50 base pairs) is exchanged, where one double helix remains unaltered but the other has changed. This is called gene conversion : K Van Steen 144
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Recombination is related to genetic distance • The greater the physical distance between two loci, the more likely it is that there will be recombination. • This forms the basis of mapping strategies such as linkage and association. • So recombination is related to “distance” D. In a way, it forms a bridge between “physical distance” and “genetic distance” (Roche Genetics) K Van Steen 145
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Genetic distance (continued) • In general, a genetic map function M(D) = θ provides a mapping from the additive genetic distance D to the non-additive recombination fraction θ between a given pair of loci, where the recombination fraction θ is, as before, the proportion of gametes that are recombinant between the two loci. • Genetic map functions are needed because in most experiments all we can directly observe are the recombination events. • However, since a recombination event is only observed if there are an odd number of crossovers between the two loci, recombination fractions are not additive. • One of the most widely used map functions is Haldane’s map function , and has been in widespread use since 1919. K Van Steen 146
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Genetic distance (continued) • Several models exist for recombination rates, but the “constant recombination rate” model is the simplest: - A simplified model is that loci can be arranged along a line in such a way that, with each meiosis, recombinations occur at a constant rate. - In the simplest setting, the relationship between the recombination frequency and the genetic distance is then given by Haldane’s map function as follows: K Van Steen 147
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Genetic distance (continued) • In practice, real-life is more complicated, due to settings for which the model of independence of recombinations does not fit - Under the Kosambi map function , complete interference is assumed for small map distances and a decreasing amount of interference accompanies increasing distances. - Hot spots cause uneven relationship between physical and genetic distances K Van Steen 148
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Genetic distance (continued) • The unit of genetic distance D AB is called a Morgan . - At each meiosis the expected number of recombinations is one per Morgan (definition) • An extra real-life complication is that recombination appears to be more frequent in females than in males: - Total female map length: 44 Morgans - Total male map length: 27 Morgans - Total sex-averaged map length: 33 Morgans • On average, 1 cM corresponds to about 10 6 bases. - The total length of the human genome is “on average” 33 Morgans ( ≈ 3 × 10 9 bases) K Van Steen 149
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Sex differences in cross-over events • Plot of sex-specific genetic distance to physical distance ratio (in cM/Mb) against genetic location. The full line was obtained by use of female genetic distance; the dashed line was obtained by use of male genetic distance. Triangle: approximate location of the centromere. (Broman et al, AJHG , 1998) K Van Steen 150
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Sex differences in cross-over events • At the telomeres of nearly all chromosomes, the female:male genetic- distance ratio approaches and often dips below 1, so that males exhibit equal or greater recombination rates in the telomeric regions. (Broman et al, AJHG , 1998) K Van Steen 151
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics 2.b How do individuals/animals/plants differ with regard to their genetic variation? Variation in chromosome numbers between species Diploid numbers • All animals have a characteristic number of chromosomes in their body cells called the diploid (or 2n) number. • These occur as homologous pairs, one member of each pair having been acquired from the gamete of one of the two parents of the individual whose cells are being examined. • The gametes contain the haploid number (n) of chromosomes. K Van Steen 152
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Diploid numbers of commonly studied organisms Gallus gallus (chicken) 78 Homo sapiens (human) 46 Zea mays (corn or maize) 20 Mus musculus (house mouse) 40 Muntiacus reevesi (the Chinese Drosophila melanogaster (fruit 23 8 muntjac, a deer) fly) Muntiacus muntjac (its Indian Caenorhabditis elegans 6 12 (microscopic roundworm) cousin) Myrmecia pilosula (an ant) 2 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 32 (budding yeast) Parascaris equorum var. univalens (parasitic roundworm) 2 Arabidopsis thaliana (plant in 10 the mustard family) Cambarus clarkii (a crayfish) 200 Xenopus laevis (South African Equisetum arvense (field 216 36 clawed frog) horsetail ; a plant) Canis familiaris (domestic dog) 78 K Van Steen 153
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Haploid, haplotypes and phase • Phase refers to the haplotypic configuration of linked loci. • The diplotype U1U3–V1V2 is consistent with two possible phases: (1) U1– V1 on one chromosome and U3–V2 on the other; or (2) U1–V2 on one chromosome and U3–V1 on the other. • If a child receives U1–V1 on a paternally derived chromosome from a father with diplotype U1U3–V1V2, it either implies that the father was in phase (1) and no recombination has occurred, or he was in phase (2) and there has been recombination. • This concept is extremely important in genetic linkage and association studies (see later) • Variation in phase is related to variation at composite loci K Van Steen 154
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Variation at genetic loci What is a locus? • A locus is a unique chromosomal location defining the position of an individual gene or DNA sequence. - Hence, it does not necessarily refer to one particular base-pair position! • In genetic linkage studies, the term can also refer to a larger region involving several genes, perhaps even including non-coding parts of the DNA. K Van Steen 155
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics What is an allele? • Because human cells are diploid, there are two alleles at each genetic locus • This pair of alleles is called the individual's genotype at that locus • If the 2 alleles are the same, the individual is said to be homozygous at the locus. If they are different, he/she is said to be heterozygous at the locus • The heterozygosity of a marker is defined as the probability that two alleles chosen at random are different. If π is the (relative) frequency of the i -th allele, then heterozygosity can be expressed as: K Van Steen 156
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Associating alleles to traits? • If a single copy of an allele results in the same phenotype as two copies irrespective of the second allele, the allele is said to be dominant over the second allele • Likewise, an allele which must occur in both copies of the gene to yield the phenotype is termed recessive • Alleles which correspond to mutations which destroy the coding of a protein tend to be recessive • If the phenotype for genotype i/j is intermediate between the phenotypes for i/i and j/j , the alleles i and j are co-dominant K Van Steen 157
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Associating alleles to traits? K Van Steen 158
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Associating alleles to traits? • Recall: The phenotype is the characteristic (e.g. hair color) that results from having a specific genotype • Often we require probability models to describe phenotypic expression of genotypes. Probabilities of phenotype conditional upon genotype are called penetrances • In many cases, the same phenotype can result from a variety of different genotypes (sometimes termed phenocopies ) • Equally, the same gene may have several different phenotypic manifestations. This phenomenon is called pleiotropy . K Van Steen 159
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Using proxies to capture genetic variation at loci • Framework maps of the chromosomes are actually built using polymorphic markers . These may or may not have any function at all. • A marker is polymorphic if it can exist in different forms (meaning, with slightly different sequences). The different forms are called alleles . Some polymorphic markers may have 20 or more distinct alleles • Random mutations within the marker sequence may lead to a new allele or to the conversion of one allele into another (see before) K Van Steen 160
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Distinguish between polymorphisms and mutations • The verb mutation describes the process by which new variants of a gene arise. As a noun it is used to describe a rare variant of a gene. • Polymorphisms are more common variants (more than 1%). • Most mutations will disappear but some will achieve higher frequencies due either to random genetic drift or to selective pressure • The most common forms of variants are: - repeated sequences of 2, 3 or 4 nucleotides (microsatellites) - single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in which one letter of the code is altered K Van Steen 161
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics Non-synonymous SNP • A SNP that alters the DNA sequence in a coding region such that the amino acid coding is changed. • The new code specifies an alternative amino acid or changes the code for an amino acid to that for a stop translation signal or vice versa. • Non-synonymous SNPs are sometimes referred to as coding SNPs. Synonymous SNP • Synonymous SNPs alter the DNA sequence but do not change the protein coding sequence as interpreted at translation, because of redundancy in the genetic code. • Exonic SNPs may or may not cause an amino acid change K Van Steen 162
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics 2.c How to detect individual differences? • Based on the previous, one obvious way to detect individual differences is by studying differences in an individual’s DNA sequence. • Hence, - How to sequence? - How to study sequences? (Chapter 4) - How to compare multiple sequences? (Chapter 5) K Van Steen 163
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics The sequencing reaction • The purpose of sequencing is to determine the order of the nucleotides of a gene. • For sequencing, we mostly start from smaller fragments (PCR fragments; see later) or cloned genes. • There are three major steps in a sequencing reaction (like in PCR), which are repeated for 30 or 40 cycles. - Step 1: Denaturation at 94°C : During the denaturation, the double strand melts open to single stranded DNA, all enzymatic reactions stop (for example : the extension from a previous cycle). (http://users.ugent.be/~avierstr/principles/seq.html) K Van Steen 164
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics The sequencing reaction - Step 2: Annealing at 50°C : In sequencing reactions, only one primer is used, so there is only one strand copied (in PCR : two primers are used, so two strands are copied). Ionic bonds are constantly formed and broken between the single stranded primer and the single stranded template. The more stable bonds last a little bit longer (primers that fit exactly) and on that little piece of double stranded DNA (template and primer), the polymerase can attach and starts copying the template. Once there are a few bases built in, the ionic bond is so strong between the template and the primer, that it does not break anymore. (http://users.ugent.be/~avierstr/principles/seq.html) K Van Steen 165
Bioinformatics Chapter 2: Introduction to genetics The sequencing reaction - Step 3: extension at 60°C: This is the ideal working temperature for the polymerase (normally it is 72 °C, but because it has to incorporate ddNTP's which are chemically modified dNTPs (deoxynucleotide triphosphates: the free nucleotide bases used for DNA strand growing) with a fluorescent label, the temperature is lowered so it has time to incorporate the 'strange' molecules). The primers, where there are a few bases built in, already have a stronger ionic attraction to the template than the forces breaking these attractions. (http://users.ugent.be/~avierstr/principles/seq.html) K Van Steen 166
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