Argument � Not a “fight” or a “debate” � The connotation that an argument is a heated disagreement does not apply here � We are not concerned with formal pro-con debates where one position or another is argued. Argument � An argument can be explicit or implicit � Explicit—direct argument with claims and supporting reasoning and evidence. � Implicit—visual image, cartoon, narrative, poem, etc. CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 1 CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 2 Explicit Argument Explicit Argument (cont’d) � An argument makes claims that require � Argument is both a product and a process justification � Process—argumentation is a process, often involving a conversation or dialogue. � often in form of a dialogue involving claims and � Product—the product of an argument is a summing counterclaims up of the contributions or the conclusion � Explicit or implicit, argument has some necessary components � set of two or more conflicting assertions � attempt to resolve the conflict through and appeal to reason (usually backed by evidence). CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 3 CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 4 The Problem of Truth Explicit Argument (cont’d) (Truth versus Persuasion) � Argument is a balance between truth seeking � What’s the balance? (Too much tilt towards and persuasion persuasion makes argument propaganda) � Truth-seeking—the best solution; an optimal solution � May have to sacrifice winning a debate in terms � Persuasion—what reasons and evidence that best of higher goals, Truth and Goodness speak to audience’s values and views � Socrates versus the Sophists (Athens, 5th century B.C.) � Socrates—the goal of debate is to rid the world of error � Sophists—Mercenary debaters who relied on any persuasive technique to win. There are no basic assumptions, no fundamental principles, no truths CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 5 6 1
The Problem of Truth Successful Argumentation: (Truth versus Persuasion) (cont ’d) The Well-Functioning Committee � But is it better to sometimes win a debate, even � Committee: A small group seeking the solution if have to lean more towards persuasion than to a problem truth-seeking? � Committees sometimes get a bad name, but good committees have done some very important work in � And what is truth anyway? Could arguers begin social, political, and cultural settings from different basic principles and thus different � Exercise: University Standards Committee (p. 17 in versions of truth? What is “good” or the “best WA book) solution”? That can depend on your starting premises. CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 7 CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 8 Reading Sympathetically and Critically Reading as a Believer � Practice “empathic listening” (see the world � To read arguments effectively, adopt a multi- through the author’s eyes) step approach � Requires putting aside your own viewpoint for � Read as a believer the moment � Read as a doubter � For this AND the other steps in reading � Consider alternative views, and analyze sources of arguments effectively, you must: disagreement � read argument carefully for general meaning. � Use disagreement productively to prompt further � analyze each paragraph for says and does investigation � A does statement identifies a paragraph’s function “The idea that we should be open to all ideas is very different from � A says statement summarizes the paragraph’s content the supposition that all ideas are equally valid” --Lawrence Summers, President, Harvard University CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 9 CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 10 Considering Alternative View s and Reading as a Doubter Analyzing Sources of Disagreement � Since an argument involves two or more � Whether you tend to agree with the argument or conflicting assertions, you must be sure to not, you should now read it critically or consider the important disagreements. skeptically � Disagreements may be: � Demand more proof, doubt evidence given, � -about facts or reality. “Facts” are often not the challenge the author’s assumptions and values. empirical facts of science, but are often contested. � What is the background of the author or his or her � -about values, beliefs, or assumptions. For example, sources? What bias is being brought forward? sometimes these disagreements may manifest � What are the source of the claims made? themselves as disagreements about definitions (e.g., what is pornography or what is a minority). � Are alternatives ignored? CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 1 1 12 2
Using Disagreement Productively to Prompt Further Investigation � Disagreement is both a strategy for reading arguments and a bridge towards constructing your own arguments � Seek out sources of facts and more complete versions of alternative (and the current) views. � Determine what values are at stake in the issue and articulate your own values. � Consider ways to synthesize alternative views. CS 4001 Mary Jean Harrold 13 3
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